The Definitive FDR
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John Nance Garner visiting Roosevelt aboard the President’s inspection-tour train, Uvalde, Texas, September 27, 1942
Lunch in the field: Lt. Gen. Mark Clark, President Roosevelt, Harry Hopkins, Maj. Gen. George S. Patton, Jr., Rabat, Morocco, January 21, 1943
Franklin D. Roosevelt Library
Franklin D. Roosevelt Library
Forced handshake: Generals Henri Giraud and Charles de Gaulle with Roosevelt and
Churchill, Casablanca, January 24,1943
United States and British military leaders discussing strategy at Casablanca: Adm. Ernest J. King, Chief of Naval Operations; Gen. George C. Marshall, Army Chief of Staff; Lt. Gen. H. H. Arnold, Air Force Chief; Brig. Gen. John R. Deane, U.S. member of secretariat; Brig. Vivian Dykes, British member of secretariat; Brig. Gen. A. C. Wedemeyer, member of War Plans Division; Lt. Gen. Hastings L. Ismay, Chief Staff Officer to Minister of Defence; Vice Adm. Lord Louis Mountbatten, Director of Combined Operations; Admiral of the Fleet Sir Dudley Pound, First Sea Lord; Gen. Sir Alan Brooke, Chief of the Imperial General Staff; Air Chief Marshal Sir Charles Portal, Chief of the Air Staff; and Field Marshal Sir John Dill, chief of the British Mission, Washington
Franklin D. Roosevelt Library
Franklin D. Roosevelt Library
Roosevelt, en route home from Casablanca, celebrating his 61st birthday aloft, with Adm. William D. Leahy, Harry Hopkins, and Capt. Howard M. Cone, commander of the Boeing Clipper, January 30, 1943
The President with Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek and Madame Chiang, at the Cairo Conference, November 25, 1943
Franklin D. Roosevelt Library
Franklin D. Roosevelt Library
Roosevelt, on the way to the Teheran Conference, in Sicily with Gen. Dwight D. Eisenhower, December 8, 1943
Franklin D. Roosevelt Library
At the Teheran Conference: Harry Hopkins,
Stalin’s translator, Marshal Stalin, Vyacheslav Molotov, K.Y. Vorishilov
Franklin D. Roosevelt Library
Franklin D. Roosevelt Library
Secretary of State Cordell Hull, Senator James F. Byrnes, and Senator Alben W. Barkley welcome Roosevelt back from Teheran, Washington, D.C., December 17, 1943
Franklin D. Roosevelt Library
Pacific strategy conference, Honolulu: the President with Gen. Douglas MacArthur and
Adm. Chester W. Nimitz, July 27, 1944
Franklin D. Roosevelt Library
Judge Samuel I. Rosenman and Lt. Comm. Howard G. Bruenn, Medical Corps, U.S. Navy, during the President’s Hawaiian trip, July 1944
Americans of Polish descent calling on the President at the White House, Pulaski Day, October 11, 1944
Franklin D. Roosevelt Library
Wide World Photos
President and Mrs. Roosevelt on the campaign trail, New York City, October 21, 1944
Roosevelt after addressing the Foreign Policy Association, with William H. Lancaster, Association Chairman; Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson; Secretary of the Navy James V. Forrestal; UNRRA Director General Herbert H. Lehman, New York City, October 21, 1944
Franklin D. Roosevelt Library
United Press International
Roosevelt with Fala at Hyde Park, October 22, 1944
United Press International
Campaign banner in his political homeland floating above the President’s car Newburgh, N.Y., November 6, 1944
Wide World Photos
Roosevelt campaigning with Secretary of the Treasury Henry Morgenthau, Jr., near Hyde Park, N.Y., November 6, 1944
The President, after re-election to a fourth term, with Vice President-elect Harry S. Truman and Vice President Henry A. Wallace, making a brief radio address on his arrival in Washington, November 10, 1944
United Press International
Herbert Orth, LIFE Magazine © Time Inc.
Lucy Mercer Rutherford Painting by Elizabeth Shoumatoff
The President and Mrs. Roosevelt with their thirteen grandchildren, in the White House, January 20, 1945
Franklin D. Roosevelt Library
Franklin D. Roosevelt Library
The first day of the Big Three meetings at Yalta, February 1945
Roosevelt making a point to Churchill at Yalta
United Press International
The President reporting to the Congress on the Yalta Conference, March 1, 1945
Roosevelt with the United States delegation to the United Nations founding conference at San Francisco: Rep. Sol Bloom, of New York; Virginia Gildersleeve, Dean of Barnard College; Sen. Tom Connally, of Texas; Secretary of State Edward Stettinius, Jr.; Harold Stassen; Sen. Arthur H. Vandenberg, of Michigan, and Rep. Charles Eaton, of New Jersey, at the White House, March 1945
Franklin D. Roosevelt Library
Franklin D. Roosevelt Library
The caisson bearing President Roosevelt’s coffin approaching the Capitol on the way from Union Station to the White House, April 14, 1945
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
THIS SECOND VOLUME ON Franklin D. Roosevelt, like my first, has had to be an exercise in collective scholarship because of the enormous scope and complexity of both the materials and the problems analyzed. I thank warmly the following, who served as my research associates and who labored with me, and without me, for long days in the records, and made major substantive contributions: Mrs. John W. Baer, of Annapolis, who worked in the Washington, D.C. collections and had an appreciative eye for significant data; Douglas D. Rose, who conducted research primarily at the Franklin D. Roosevelt Library, discussed major research and substantive problems with me, worked out significant theoretical approaches to several questions, wrote drafts of several sections of chapters (as indicated in the chapter bibliographies), criticized drafts of my own chapters, and did all this with style, wit, wisdom, and a dash of iconoclasm; and Stewart Burns, who did research and writing on scientific and other aspects of war mobilization, drafted sections on these aspects, as noted elsewhere, and, despite his keen aversion to all things military, brought detachment as well as insight to the questions he studied. Sally Burns also assisted on research, especially on data relating to Roosevelt’s health; and Kate Rose helped on research and brought pungency and good humor to her reviews of my manuscript.
From his broad and penetrating knowledge of American diplomatic history, Russell H. Bastert, of Williams College, made criticisms of my manuscript, as did John Morton Blum, of Yale, from his masterly studies of the Roosevelt and earlier presidencies. Robert C. L. Scott, of Williams College, brought to bear on my draft his versatility and fine judgment on history. Forrest Pogue, writer of authoritative studies of World War II generalship, made numerous suggestions for improving the manuscript. I am grateful to these busy men for sharing their knowledge and judgment so generously.
A. A. Foursenko, Institute of History, Leningrad; Martin Gilbert, Merton College, Oxford; Kurt Tauber, Williams College; and Gordon Wright, Stanford University (formerly Cultural Attaché, American Embassy, Paris), assisted me in arranging interviews with historians and others in the Soviet Union, Great Britain, Germany, and France, respectively. With these four scholars, too, I enjoyed substantive discussions of World War II historiography.
Mrs. Anna Roosevelt Halsted assisted me in gaining access to important materials bearing on her father’s presidency. Paula Levine (Mrs. Richard Lewis Gaines) helped me locate data at the Williams College and other libraries. Paul W. Streicker conducted research at the Franklin D. Roosevelt Library, concentrating on tabulating and interpreting public-opinion data. Professor Benedict J. Duffy, Jr., M.D., of the Tufts University School of Medicine, and Dr. James A. Halsted advised me on the interpretation of data bearing on Roosevelt’s health.
Pamela L. Buck made special translations from the Russian, and Gisela C. Dittmer from the German.
My editor at Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, William B. Goodman, was knowledgeable, demanding, and compassionate; Roberta Leighton edited the manuscript with her usual grace and skill.
All these
people I thank; I thank, above all, my most beloved and constructive critic, Joan Simpson Burns.
GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY
RESEARCH ON FRANKLIN D. ROOSEVELT’S first two presidential terms, and on his earlier years, must be undertaken largely at the Franklin D. Roosevelt Library (FDRL). Research on the war years requires, as well, the use of a great many other libraries and archives, though FDRL still remains primary. The difficulty in consulting records on a man and presidency of such enormous scope was matched only by the unvarying helpfulness of archivists and librarians, whether American, British, or Russian. Of great help, too, were the bibliographies of the period, of which I will mention only two here: Louis Morton, “Sources for the History of World War II,” World Politics, Vol. XIII, April 1961, pp. 435-453; and William J. Stewart, compiler and editor, The Era of Franklin D. Roosevelt (Hyde Park, N.Y.: The Franklin D. Roosevelt Library, 1967), especially pp. 960-1278, an extensive bibliography of periodical and dissertation literature.
At the Roosevelt Library, the collections of which I described briefly in Roosevelt: The Lion and the Fox, pp. 490-491, I have used many of the sets of papers that were useful for the first volume: President’s Personal File (PPF), Official File (OF), President’s Secretary’s File (PSF), Press Conferences (PC), the Harry L. Hopkins Papers (HHP). For this volume, the Hopkins Papers have continued to be indispensable, as have the following: President’s Map Room Papers (PMRP), PSF Safe File, Oscar Cox Diary, Harold Smith Diary, and many others that are noted in the chapter bibliographies. The major files are subdivided into numerous separate files, organized by name or subject.
Other major collections or archives I have used are:
1. The Manuscript Division, Library of Congress: papers of Henry H. Arnold, Raymond Clapper, Joseph E. Davies, Felix frankfurter, Cordell Hull, Frank Knox, Henrietta Nesbitt, George W. Norris, Robert Patterson, Francis B. Sayre, Laurence A. Steinhardt, William Allen White, Wendell L. Willkie; and diaries of Clapper, Mrs. Nesbitt, and William D. Leahy.
2. Transcripts of interviews, Oral History Project, Columbia University: Harvey H. Bundy, John Carmody, Thomas C. Hart, Gardner Jackson, Arthur Krock, Herbert Lehman, William Phillips, Norman Thomas, and others.
3. National Archives, especially the records of the State Department and of the Army. The State Department records are a useful supplement to, and check on, the invaluable compilation Foreign Relations of the United States. The Army records are too vast and variegated even to be summarized here; they are referred to in the chapter bibliographies, as are the State Department records.
4. Henry L. Stimson Diary and Papers, Yale University Library: these two sets of documents are rich in factual material, Stimson’s day-to-day observations, and more formal records; they are indispensable to a study of the war administration.
5. Other important sources: Harry S. Truman Library; Princeton University Library (Forrestal Papers); Brandeis University (David Niles Papers, through the courtesy of A. L. Sachar); Widener Library; in Great Britain: the British Museum, the Foreign Office Library, the Imperial War Museum; in the Soviet Union: the Moscow State Library. I thank the personnel of all these institutions for their unfailing courtesy.
In conversations that were not so much formal interviews as attempts to look back at the period through the eyes of participants, I have had the benefit of the views of: Lord Avon (Anthony Eden), V. Berezhkov, Adolf A. Berle, David Bruce, Randolph Churchill, Ernest Cuneo, Jonathan Daniels, Thomas E. Dewey, Morris Ernst, Anna Roosevelt Halsted, Mrs. Harold L. Ickes, Archibald MacLeish, Ivan Maisky, Samuel I. Rosenman, Grace Tully.
Writing of so international a figure as Roosevelt during his leadership of a world coalition imposes on the historian a special responsibility to understand the perspectives of historians in other countries. I greatly appreciated the opportunity to discuss aspects of the war period, especially of grand strategy, with the following persons:
In Britain: H. C. Allen and his colleagues at the Institute of United States Studies; D. N. Dilks, London School of Economics; John Ehrman; Michael Howard, then of the University of London; Arnold Toynbee, Chatham House; D. C. Watt, Chatham House.
In France: Jean Baptiste Duroselle; André Fontaine.
In Germany: Waldemar Besson, University of Konstanz; Ossip Flechtheim, Free University of Berlin; Andreas Hillgruber, University of Freiburg; Hans-Adolf Jacobsen, Bonn University; Jurgen Röhwer, Library for Contemporary History, Stuttgart; and Hermann Graml, Lothar Gruchmann, and Thilo Vogelsang, Institute for Contemporary History, Munich.
In the Soviet Union: Youri L. Kouznets, Leningrad University; Georgi A. Arbatov, A. A. Gromyko, N. N. Yakovlev, and their colleagues at the Institute of the United States of America; V. Berezhkov (Stalin’s interpreter), New Times; historians at the Institute for Soviet-American Relations; Professor Silachov and his colleagues at the History Department, Moscow State University; G. Deborin, Marx-Lenin Institute. I also benefited immeasurably from lengthy exchanges of views that I had with members of the Institute of History, Soviet Academy of Sciences, in both Leningrad and Moscow, when I lectured there in 1963. I thank all the above scholars for their hospitality and courtesies.
Ernest Cuneo, Morris Ernst, and Samuel I. Rosenman not only counseled me at length on aspects of the war period, but also supplied me with personal documents. The late Hadley Cantril, of Princeton, generously lent me his extensive notebooks, consisting of the results both of the polls he conducted and of other polls, and of his correspondence with the many persons through whom the results and conclusions were channeled to the President. The Roper Public Opinion Research Center at Williams College assisted me in obtaining and interpreting public-opinion data. The staff of the Williams College Library was, as always, helpful and obliging.
CHAPTER BIBLIOGRAPHIES
THE FOLLOWING ABBREVIATIONS ARE used in citations in the chapter bibliographies:
AR Army Records, National Archives
FDRL Franklin D. Roosevelt Library, Hyde Park, New York
FRUS Foreign Relations of the United States, Washington, D.C., cited by year and volume except for special-subject volumes, which are cited by title
HHP Harry Hopkins Papers, Franklin D. Roosevelt Library
HSTL Harry S. Truman Library, Independence, Missouri
LC Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.
NA National Archives, Washington, D.C.
NYT The New York Times
OF Official Files, Franklin D. Roosevelt Library
OHP Oral History Project, Columbia University
PC Press Conferences, Franklin D. Roosevelt Library
PHA Pearl Harbor Attack, see Basic Book List
PL Elliott Roosevelt (ed.), F.D.R.: His Personal Letters (New York: Duell, Sloan and Pearce, 1950), Vol. II
PMRP President’s Map Room Papers, Franklin D. Roosevelt Library
PPA Samuel I. Rosenman (ed.), The Public Papers and Addresses of Franklin D. Roosevelt, Volumes 1941-1944-5 (4 vols., New York: Harper & Brothers, 1950). Cited by year volume covers
PPF President’s Personal File, Franklin D. Roosevelt Library
PSF President’s Secretary’s File, Franklin D. Roosevelt Library
SD State Department
Books cited in the chapter bibliographies were published in New York City unless otherwise noted. When the author’s last name alone is used, the full citation will be found either in the Basic Book List, if that author has been cited in more than one chapter, or in the chapter bibliography. Thus the Basic Book List contains names of only those works cited in more than one chapter. An author’s name with a superior number (Pogue 1) is used when the Basic Book List contains more than one book by that author; the list provides the key to the particular book. In most cases where documents have been faithfully reproduced in published secondary sources I have cited the latter for the sake of readier accessibility to the reader.
BASIC BOOKLIST
Acheson, Dean, Present at the Creation (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, Inc., 1969)<
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Allen, George E., Presidents Who Have Known Me (New York: Simon and Schuster, Inc., 1950)
Arnold, Henry H., Global Mission (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1949)
Asbell, Bernard, When F.D.R. Died (New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, Inc., 1961)
Barkley, Alben W., That Reminds Me (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday & Company, Inc., 1954)
Barnard, Ellsworth, Wendell Willkie (Marquette, Mich.: Northern Michigan University Press, 1966)
Baruch, Bernard M., Baruch: The Public Years (New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, Inc., 1960)
Baxter, James Phinney, 3rd, Scientists Against Time (Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1946)
Berezhkov, Valentin, Teheran, 1943 (Moskva: Izdatel’stvo agentstva pechati novosti, 1968)
Biddle, Francis, In Brief Authority (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday & Company, Inc., 1962)
Bloom, Sol, The Autobiography of Sol Bloom (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1948)
Blum, John Morton, From the Morgenthau Diaries (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company). Vol. II, Years of Urgency, 1938-1941 (1965): Blum1. Vol. III, Years of War, 1941-1945 (1967): Blum2
Bohlen, Charles E., The Transformation of American Foreign Policy (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, Inc., 1969)
Bradley, Omar N., A Soldier’s Story (New York: Henry Holt & Company, Inc., 1951) Bryant, Arthur, Triumph in the West (London: William Collins Sons & Co. Ltd., 1959): Bryant1
———, The Turn of the Tide (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday & Company, Inc., 1957): Bryant2
Buchanan, A. Russell, The United Stales and World War II (2 vols., New York: Harper & Row, 1964)
Bullock, Alan, Hitler: A Study in Tyranny (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1953)