Six Sagas of Adventure

by Ben Waggoner (trans)

  As soon as spring came, they all prepared to return to Denmark. They loaded their ships with malt, mead, wine, and costly clothes, and all the wares that were most treasured in Denmark and that could be bought in England. Then they set sail back to Denmark, and Alfhild went with them. All the folk in Jutland were glad that they had come back. The young maidens welcomed them warmly, and so did Bjorn the Counsellor. Alfhild came to Ingigerd and Thora, and there was much rejoicing among them all together. They had their ship unloaded, and they arranged for a noble feast with all the best provisions that could be had in Denmark or nearby lands. No expense was spared for the halls and tapestries and everything that was to be found in the Northlands. To this feast there were invited burgesses and retainers, counts and jarls, along with dukes and kings and all other men of high degree. Most of the nobles in Denmark attended this feast. All the men who had come there were arranged in their seats, and courteous squires and well-mannered courtiers served there. All sorts of dishes were brought out, with the costliest spices: the flesh of beasts and birds of all kinds, reindeer and stags and excellent wild boar, geese and ptarmigans, with peppered peacocks. There was no lack of the costliest drink: ale and English mead, together with the finest of wines, and also spiced and honeyed wines.[85] And with the wedding appointed and the feast arranged, one might hear all manner of stringed instruments: harps and viols, hurdy-gurdies and psalteries. Drums were beaten and pipes were blown, and there were all manner of delightful games that one’s body might enjoy. After that, the young maidens were led in with their splendid coiffures and delightful throng of ladies. Two noblemen led each lady whom the bridegrooms were to marry. Over them was borne a cloth canopy on painted posts, intended to shade their bright raiment and fair procession until they had reached their seats. Then the canopy was taken away, and no color surpassed the color of their skin and hair shining, and their gold glowing, set with gemstones gleaming. Everyone found that even Alfhild and Thora seemed pallid next to Ingigerd.

  Now the feast was at the height of its splendor, and at this feast Hrolf married Ingigerd, Stefnir married Alfhild, and Harald married Thora. For seven nights continued the feasting, being appointed and arranged in the manner that I am now describing, and in glory and splendor concluding, with the bridegrooms bestowing fine gifts upon all noble men and thanking them for coming. Each fared to his own household, praising their lordliness as much as their magnificence, with everyone in friendship parting.[86] Great love began to grow between the wedded couples.

  King Harald did not stay for long in Denmark before preparing to go home to England. He parted with his brother-in-law Stefnir and with Hrolf in friendship and went straight to his kingdom. Thora was his queen, and they settled down peacefully. They had children together, though they aren’t named.

  England is said to be the richest of all the western lands, because all metals are smelted there, and wheat and grapes are produced there, and all sorts of crops may be had there. Also, clothes and many sorts of fabrics are made there, more than in other places. London is the principal city there, along with Canterbury. Scarborough and Hastings[87] are there, along with Winchester and many other cities and towns which will not be named here.[88]

  The title of jarl over all Jutland was given to Stefnir. He usually stayed in Ribe.

  Denmark is divided into many parts, but Jutland makes up the greater part of the kingdom; it lies to the south along the ocean. It is called Jutlandside along the west coast from Skagen southwards to Ribe. There are many important cities in Jutland. The southernmost is Hedeby; next is Ribe, a third is Aarhus, and a fourth is Viborg, which is where the Danes choose their king. The Limfjord cuts through Jutland and runs from north to south. In the interior of the fjord, Harald’s Neck leads west to the sea; that’s where King Harald Sigurdsson had his ships dragged, when he escaped the enmity of the King of Sweden.[89] To the west of the Limfjord lies Skagen, which curves northwards. The principal town is Hjorring. Between Jutland and Fyn lies the Little Belt. The principal town on Fyn is Odense. The Great Belt runs between Fyn and Zealand; the principal town on Zealand is Roskilde. The Oresund runs to the north of Zealand, and north of that is Skane; there the principal town is Lund. Many great islands lie between Jutland and Skane; there are Samso, Als, Lolland, and Langeland. Bornholm lies in the sea to the east. The Skjoldung kings held this kingdom at this time. Although other kings and jarls had kingdoms to rule, no smaller than the kings in Denmark had, the Skjoldungs bore greater distinction on account of their name and descent.[90]

  CHAPTER XXXVIII

  It’s said that Jarl Stefnir must not have lived long, and he had no children that survived infancy. Hrolf and Stefnir parted in great friendship, and maintained their fellowship for as long as they both lived. It’s not said that Hrolf ever came to Ringerike again—but it’s said that Harald traveled westward to England that summer. Hrolf sailed east from Denmark to Novgorod with ten ships, and Ingigerd went with him. There, Hrolf was raised to the kingship over all Russia, on the advice of the princess and other powerful personages.

  One third of Russia is called Kiev. It lies along the mountain range that separates Russia from Jotunheim. There are also Ermland and many other small realms.

  Hrolf ruled his kingdom and was highly respected. He was both wise and a good ruler. No chieftains dared to invade his lands, on account of his fame and his boldness. Hrolf and Ingigerd loved each other very much and had many children. One son of theirs was named Hreggvid, an outstanding man; he went raiding in the Eastern realms and never came back. Wise men say that another son of Hrolf’s was King Olaf, who was attacked by Helgi the Bold. Hromund Gripsson aided Olaf and killed Helgi, as is told in his saga.[91] Hrolf’s daughters were Dagny and Dagbjort, who healed Hromund, but it isn’t recorded whether they were Ingigerd’s children or not.[92] Hrolf’s third son was named Hord, the father of Kari, father of Horda-Knut.[93] It’s said that Hrolf lived to be old, but it’s not clear whether he died of illness or was slain with weapons.

  Now, even though this saga may not seem to agree with other sagas which treat this matter, concerning people’s names and events, or what each one achieved or did by means of bravery or wisdom or sorcery or treachery, or where the chieftains ruled—it’s quite likely that those who have written and compiled these events must have had something in front of them, either old lays or the accounts of learned men. And there must be few or no stories of ancient heroes that are so truthful that men would swear oaths that events happened as described, because most stories become filled out with words, and not all words and details are recorded in every place, because most things are quicker in the telling. Thus it’s best not to blame the stories of learned men or call them lies, unless someone can tell them in a more plausible way, or express them more eloquently. Old lays and tales have been created more for momentary enjoyment than everlasting faith. Few things are told that are so implausible that a true example cannot be found of something else that happened in that way. And truly is it written that God has given wit and discernment in earthly affairs to heathens, in the same way as Christians, along with surpassing valor, wealth, and splendid form.

  Now this tale of Hrolf the son of Sturlaug and his mighty deeds, comes to an end here. Thanks to everyone who listened and was entertained, but grief to those who were annoyed by it and can’t enjoy anything. Amen.

  [1] The Norse text has fornskræðum, “old manuscripts”, but this misses the point that author is contasting oral and written sources. The same prologue appears in Sigurðar saga þögla with fornkvæðum, “old poems”, and this makes more sense; fornskræðum is probably a scribal error. (O’Connor, “Truth and Lies in the Fornaldarsögur,” p. 368, n6)

  [2] Eyvindr kinnrifi (Split-Cheek) is a sorceror tortured to death by King Óláfr Tryggvason, who claims before he dies to be a spirit magically brought into human form. (Óláfs saga Tryggvasonar ch. 76; transl. Hollander, Heimskringla
, p. 211) Gunnar Half-and-Half destroyed an animated idol of the god Frey that was possessed by a “devil” in Ögmundar þáttr dytts, a tale embedded in the version of Óláfs saga Tryggvasonar found in Flateyjarbók. I have been unable to track down Einarr skarfr (Cormorant); Pálsson and Edwards state that he appears in Heimskringla, but I have been unable to locate him in the standard editions.

  [3] A version of this same prologue also begins the Icelandic romance Sigurðar saga þögla (Loth, Late Medieval Icelandic Romances, vol. 2, pp. 95-96).

  [4] Several “sagas of Icelanders” describe beautiful women as having exceptionally long, blonde hair (e.g. Hallgerd in Njáls saga ch. 9 and Helga in Gunnars saga ormstungu ch. 4, whose hair is described almost identically with this passage). Usually this is the woman’s only physical feature to be described in any detail. Since unmarried women wore their hair loose while married women kept theirs covered with a headdress, a display of long hair carried connotations of sexuality and marriageability (Jochens, “Before the Male Gaze,” pp. 12-14). This is generally the case in legendary sagas as well, except when there has been strong influence from continental chivalric literature.

  [5] Norse Dýna means the Danube (Simek, Altnordische Kosmographie, p. 203), but since the Danube doesn’t flow close to Russia, the geography is a bit confused. Yngvars saga viðförla (see next note) claims that this river that Yngvar explored was the largest of three rivers that flowed through Russia; the Don River might fit this description.

  [6] Yngvars saga viðförla tells his story. This saga is thought to be loosely based on an actual Viking excursion in the year 1041.

  [7] Dúlcifal is derived from Bucephalus, the legendary horse of Alexander the Great. The saga name might be derived from Balkan versions of the Alexander legend, in which the horse’s name has become Douchipal, but how the name was transmitted to Iceland is not clear. In any case, Dúlcifal’s immense strength and speed, and its viciousness to everyone but its fated master, are clearly based on classical and medieval legends of Bucephalus. (Magoun, “Whence ‘Dúlcifal’?”)

  [8] This is reminiscent of the famous thrusting-spear in Njáls saga (ch. 30, 54, 78, etc.), which rang out loudly if it was about to be used to kill someone.

  [9] At least some medieval French versions of the legend of Alexander claim that Bucephalus was a cross between an elephant and a dromedary (Anderson, “Bucephalas and His Legend”, p. 10).

  [10] One Sigurd Wool-String (ullstrengr) appears as one of King Magnús’s retainers in Norse historical sources (e.g. Morkinskinna ch. 56; transl. Andersson and Gade, pp. 288-294; Mágnúss saga berfœtts ch. 5-6; transl. Hollander, Heimskringla, pp. 671-672). In a scene in Morkinskinna (p. 293, n5), one of Sigurd’s adversaries mocks him and compares him to an imaginary bandit named Sigurd Wool-Yarn (ullband); the name is meant to be an insulting variant of “Wool-String,” but it’s not clear what’s so insulting about it. The compiler of Göngu-Hrólfs saga might have borrowed the name without understanding its intent. It’s tempting to speculate that a saga compiler or one of his sources might have borrowed ullband from the Gothic ulbandus, “camel,” and thus that this very legendary saga set in eastern Europe might actually preserve a small fragment of accurate information about peoples in Eastern Europe. Given that the Norse cognate of ulbandus, úlfaldi, does appear as a man’s by-name (e.g. Óláfs saga helga chs. 61-62; transl. Hollander, Heimskringla, pp. 294-296), and that sagas like Hervarar saga do preserve Gothic names, the name “Sigurd Camel” might make a little more sense than “Sigurd Wool-Yarn.” In the absence of better evidence, this speculation must remain wool-gathering.

  [11] The ability to blunt an enemy’s blades is a common magical skill in the sagas, especially among villains; see note 24 to Sturlaugs saga, ch. 9.

  [12] Hlésey (modern Danish Læsø) is a large island in the Kattegat, between Jutland and Norway; it features in several sagas as a setting for strange doings.

  [13] In Norse mythology, Ægir is the god of the sea; he is also known as Hlér, and the island of Hlésey was named for him. Gróa is the name of a seeress in Snorri’s Edda (Skáldskaparmál; ed. Faulkes, vol. 2a, p. 22) and in the Eddic poem Svípdagsmál. It’s not clear if Gróa in this saga should be identified with either of these; nonetheless, a few fragments of older myth seem to have been incorporated into the narrative here. The name may be Celtic in origin; cf. Irish and Scots Gaelic gruach, “woman.”

  [14] The war-arrow (herör) was an arrow or arrow-shaped token that was sent from farm to farm as a summons to arms; whoever received it was obliged to pass it on to his neighbor and then muster into service. It is mentioned in several historical sagas (e.g. Hákonar saga góða ch. 23; Óláfs sags Tryggvasonar chs. 17, 40, 53, 65; in Heimskringla) and in the Norwegian law codes (e.g. Gulaþingslög 151, 312, transl. Larson, The Earliest Norwegian Laws, pp. 128, 197).

  [15] The sorcerous Harek Ironskull in Þórsteins saga Víkingssonar (ch. 3) also has a bald head that cannot be hurt by normal weapons.

  [16] “Life-stones” that go with famous swords are mentioned in the “sagas of Icelanders” Kormáks saga (chs. 12, 13) and Laxdæla saga (ch. 57). These were not permanently fastened to the sword, but were kept in small bags. At least in Laxdæla saga, the life-stone is said to be the only thing that can heal wounds inflicted by its sword. Davidson translates the text of Göngu-Hrólfs saga to mean that the life-stones were “shut into the pommel”, and mentions continental descriptions of Christian relics kept in sword hilts (The Sword in Anglo-Saxon England, pp. 181-184). Guðni Jónsson’s text has leystir lífsteinar, “loose life-stones”; Davidson emends leystir to læstir, “shut in,” but given that life-stones in the other sagas are not permanently mounted on or in the sword, leystir seems reasonable. Crystal, amber, and meerschaum beads, kept close to a sword’s hilt but not permanently fastened to it, have been found in several early medieval graves in England and Germany; these probably had an amuletic function and may have been the basis for the lífsteinar of the sagas. (Davidson, pp. 82-85)

  [17] The word translated “spell” and “sorcery” here is seiðr, which could encompass several types of magical effect, including clairvoyance, divination, protection, and creating illusions or altering mental states. (See notes 60-61.)

  [18] Ermland is probably the province of Warmia, which lies along the Baltic Coast, mostly within the borders of present-day Poland. However, Norse geographical texts refer to Armenia as Ermland or Ermland hit mikla (“Greater Ermland”), and it’s just possible, if not likely, that this is what the saga author meant. (Simek, Altnordische Kosmographie, pp. 203-204; Magnús Már Lárusson, “On the So-Called ‘Armenian’ Bishops,” pp. 23-28)

  [19] In Norse mythology, Jotunheim is the realm of the giants. In the legendary sagas, it frequently appears as a land on Earth, rather nebulously defined as lying in the Arctic and/or Siberia. Aluborg or Alaborg also appears in Hálfdans saga Eysteinssonar; it seems to have been located east of Aldeigjuborg (Staraja Ladoga), not far from present-day St. Petersburg.

  [20] The word kastala and the idea of castles are both borrowed from the sagas of chivalry; the historical Viking-age Norse did not build castles as such.

  [21] Yes, this is a discrepancy: in Sturlaugs saga the temple is located in Bjarmaland, probably on the White Sea coast.

  [22] Located in southeastern Norway on the Swedish border, due east of Ringerike.

  [23] Atli’s father’s name is derived from ótryggr, “faithless; untrustworthy”.

  [24] The realm of the dead in Norse mythology.

  [25] Värmland is to the north of Götland, and rather far off Hrolf’s actual line of march.

  [26] Stigandi means “stepping”, a fitting alias for Hrolf the Walker.

  [27]
As noted in Sturlaugs saga starfsama ch. 4 (note 11), it’s common in legendary sagas to “whitewash” a hero’s Viking career by claiming that he only robbed villains who deserved it, while leaving farmers and merchants in peace. Jolgeir directly inverts this rule of the “Viking Code.”

  [28] Courland (Kúrland) is a region on the Baltic coast, part of present-day Latvia.

  [29] Hrafn means “raven”; Krákr means “crow”.

  [30] The ball game is knattleikr, mentioned in both legendary and historical sagas as a popular and potentially violent sport involving a ball that was hit with sticks. The rules are not precisely laid out in the saga accounts, but it resembled the Irish game of hurling (Gunnell, “Icelandic Knattleikur and Early Irish Hurling,” pp. 68-69, and sources therein). See Bósa saga chs. 2-3, note 9.

  [31] Saga accounts of knáttleikr state that opposing players normally played one-on-one and were supposed to be matched in strength and size (e.g. Gisla saga surssonar ch. 15, 18; Grettis saga ch. 15). Eyrbyggja saga (ch. 43) implies that a man can be barred from the games for being too strong; the account also mentions two brothers who are so big and strong that they are only allowed to play against each other. Some variants of hurling, notably Cornish hurling, had the same rule that players had to be matched by pairs (Gunnell, “Icelandic Knattleikur and Early Irish Hurling,” pp. 68-69)