Hitler's Raid to Save Mussolini
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THE STORY OF OPERATION OAK
TO SOME DEGREE, THE STORY OF OPERATION OAK HAS ALWAYS BEEN colored by myth and legend. Indeed, the distinguished Oxford historian Sir William Deakin once referred to it as “both intricate and confused, and also obscured by the personal vanity of certain of the direct participants.”1 The postwar friction between Skorzeny and Radl on the one hand and Student and the German paratroopers on the other can make separating fact from fiction particularly challenging. Each side tends to emphasize its own role while downplaying the contributions made by the other.
In piecing together this tale, I have relied heavily on firsthand accounts, including those by Skorzeny, Student, and Radl. However, the reader should keep in mind that these accounts do not always agree. A typical, but not terribly important, example of this involves the September 8 reconnaissance flight over the Gran Sasso. Skorzeny and Radl claim that they took the aerial photos, and they provide numerous details to buttress their position, but Student gives the credit to Langguth.
So that I could tell a smoothly flowing story, I declined to interrupt the narrative with a detailed discussion of competing claims. Where the facts are less than clear—and opposing points of view cannot be reconciled—this approach inevitably involves a certain measure of subjectivity. Nevertheless, I have pointed out some of the starker disagreements between Skorzeny and the paratroopers in footnotes and endnotes.
My depiction of the Gran Sasso raid deserves a few words of explanation. In describing this event, I have frankly given more weight to the accounts of General Student and the paratroopers. This seems fitting considering that the raid was a Luftwaffe enterprise for which Student had the ultimate responsibility.
However, in the interest of fairness, it should be noted that Skorzeny and Radl paint a different picture. According to the SS men, Skorzeny played a major role in the planning of the operation and was designated as the commander of the glider assault squads. Although the latter claim seems somewhat implausible—after all, Skorzeny had no training as a paratrooper—it is always possible that Skorzeny and his deputy played a larger role behind the scenes than the paratroopers would have the world believe. The exact truth of the matter is difficult to untangle.
For readers who are interested in more detail, several points of dispute between Skorzeny and the paratroopers are listed briefly below:
Mission planning. The paratroopers take full credit for conceiving and planning the Gran Sasso raid. They flatly deny Skorzeny’s claim that he was the primary architect of the operation.
Command. Student and Mors both agree that Berlepsch was the commander of the glider assault teams on September 12. Skorzeny, on the other hand, claims that he was in charge (but that Berlepsch was designated to assume command once Skorzeny had entered the hotel).
Glider sequence. According to Student, Berlepsch flew in the first glider. While en route to the Gran Sasso, Berlepsch’s chain flew a broad loop to gain more altitude. This “detour” inadvertently allowed Skorzeny to take over the lead. In his memoirs, Skorzeny claims that Berlepsch was assigned to the fifth glider. The SS man said that he and Soleti flew in Glider No. 3, which assumed the lead when the two gliders ahead of him (neither of which contained Berlepsch) mysteriously dropped out of the convoy.
Escape plan. In Skorzeny’s version, flying Mussolini off the mountain was a last-resort measure that became necessary only when other, more preferable options proved unworkable. However, Student does not corroborate this.
Bombing of Pratica di Mare. All parties agree that Allied bombers flew over the airfield on September 12 just before the departure of the gliders. Skorzeny claims that the bombing caused some minor damage to the airport, but Student denies that any bombs were dropped during this raid.
NOTES
Prologue
1. Close to 9:00 A.M.: Benito Mussolini, Memoirs, 78. Brilliant sunshine: Ibid. Palazzo Venezia was in the center of Rome: Denis Mack Smith, Mussolini, 167.
2. Hibbert, 212.
3. Stuffed hand grenades into their briefcases: Monelli, 212; and Davis, Who Defends Rome, 99.
4. A ten-hour meeting: Denis Mack Smith, Modern Italy, 414.
5. Benito Mussolini, Memoirs, 64.
6. Hoettl, 235 (from Mussolini’s Pontine and Sardinian Musings).
7. Benito Mussolini, Memoirs, 78.
8. Surrounded himself with yes-men: Denis Mack Smith, Mussolini, 279; Denis Mack Smith, Modern Italy, 391; and Brendon, 559.
9. Corvaja, 314.
10. Ibid., 320.
11. “Mussolini is always right”: Hibbert, 208; and Dombrowski, 3. Note: Dombrowski wrote that this slogan could be seen in every Italian city.
12. Mussolini was greeted by the crowd: Benito Mussolini, Memoirs, 80; Monelli, 215; Davis, Who Defends Rome, 134; and Hibbert, 219. Note: Dollmann, Interpreter, 229, claimed that Galbiati informed him that Mussolini had received a favorable reception that afternoon.
13. Benito Mussolini, Memoirs, 80.
14. Instructed Galbiati to empty his wallet and distribute money to the victims: Davis, Who Defends Rome, 134; and Hibbert, 219.
15. Did not generally carry cash: Hibbert, 219.
16. Pride in his reception: Katz, Battle for Rome, 19, noted that Mussolini bragged about it to his wife on July 25.
17. Steamy summer in Rome that year: Hibbert, 246; and Plehwe, 39.
18. Hoettl, 236 (from Mussolini’s Pontine and Sardinian Musings).
19. Bearing soup: Rachele Mussolini, 249; and Hibbert, 219.
20. Hoettl, 236 (from Mussolini’s Pontine and Sardinian Musings).
21. Rachele begged Mussolini to cancel his meeting with the king: Rachele Mussolini, 249; and Hibbert, 219.
22. He told Rachele that he had nothing to fear from the king: Rachele Mussolini, 251.
23. He told Rachele that the king was a friend: Davis, Who Defends Rome, 138; and Katz, Battle for Rome, 19.
24. Gran Consiglio: Denis Mack Smith, Modern Italy, 414.
25. Alfa Romeo: Davis, Who Defends Rome, 139. Iron gates: Hibbert, 223. The Villa Savoia was on the outskirts of Rome: Badoglio, 41 (in a footnote).
26. Dark-blue suit and a black felt hat: Hibbert, 219–220. Note: Rachele Mussolini, 251, also said that Mussolini was wearing a blue suit and a hat.
27. Behind the king’s shrubbery: Katz, Battle for Rome, 21.
28. No trace of foreboding: Benito Mussolini, Memoirs, 80.
29. Five feet tall: Davis, Who Defends Rome, 38.
30. Exchange about the hot weather: Hibbert, 224.
31. Discussed the vote and minimized its importance: Hibbert, 224; and Monelli, 218.
32. Benito Mussolini, My Rise and Fall, page 71 of the section titled “Fall of Mussolini.”
33. Monelli, 218.
34. Benito Mussolini, My Rise and Fall, page 71 of the section titled “Fall of Mussolini.”
35. Ibid.
36. Badoglio, 42. Note: Badoglio took this quote directly from the king, and it is consistent with other accounts; see, for instance, Monelli, 218. Mussolini sat down: Davis, Who Defends Rome, 141.
37. Davis, Who Defends Rome, 141. Admiration for Mussolini: Ibid., 40.
38. Benito Mussolini, My Rise and Fall, page 72 of the section titled “Fall of Mussolini.”
39. Twenty minutes: Monelli, 217; and Davis, Who Defends Rome, 141.
40. At 5:20 P.M.: Monelli, 218.
41. Benito Mussolini, My Rise and Fall, page 72 of the section titled “Fall of Mussolini.”
Chapter 1
1. Skorzeny, Secret Missions, 43.
2. Three lieutenant colonels and two majors: Ibid., 40.
3. Looped-wool carpet: Ibid.
4. Foley, 41.
5. Resigned from office for reasons of poor health: Wiskemann, 305; Gilbert, 55 (in a footnote); and Dombrowski, 39.
6. Lounge of the Hotel Eden: Skorzeny, Secret Missions, 35.
7. Ibid.
8. Ibid.
9. Ibid., 36.
10. T
housands of tons of bombs on Republican forces and Spanish civilians: Green, Warplanes, 406–407.
11. Discussed the strange goings-on in Italy: Note: Radl, 20–24, claimed that he did not meet Skorzeny at Tempelhof but that another of Skorzeny’s men brought him his uniform.
12. About 320 miles and was nearing Masuria: Skorzeny, Secret Missions, 38.
13. Fir and pine trees: Corvaja, 231.
14. Skorzeny, Secret Missions, 39.
15. Ibid.
16. Stuttgart landscaping company . . . installed artificial trees and moss: Hoffmann, Hitler’s Personal Security, 224–225.
17. Skorzeny, Secret Missions, 40.
18. Ibid.
19. Ibid., 41.
20. Ibid.
21. Blue-gray eyes: Trevor-Roper, Last Days, 116.
22. Skorzeny, Secret Missions, 42.
23. Ibid., 43.
24. Ibid.
25. 200,000 German-speaking ex-Austrians: Wiskemann, 23.
26. Skorzeny, Secret Missions, 43.
27. Ibid.
28. Ibid.
29. Hitler grew more animated as he spoke: Ibid.
30. Ibid., 43–44.
31. Ibid., 44.
32. Ibid.
33. Ibid., 45.
34. Guensche appeared again and told him that Student was waiting: Skorzeny, My Commando Operations, 231.
35. Sniper’s bullet in 1940: Barnett, Hitler’s Generals, 470.
36. Skorzeny, My Commando Operations, 232.
37. Skorzeny, Secret Missions, 46.
38. Ibid., 46–47.
39. Skorzeny, My Commando Operations, 232–233.
40. Skorzeny, Secret Missions, 47.
Chapter 2
1. Gilbert, 57.
2. Contempt for the bourgeois and upper classes: Bullock, Hitler, 220.
3. Warlimont, 326–327 (from a May 20, 1943, Hitler conference).
4. They had been caught napping: Note: After the war, Wilhelm Hoettl and Walter Schellenberg, both of whom worked in SS intelligence, claimed that the SS had tried to warn Hitler about the deteriorating situation in Italy. However, Hitler preferred to put his faith in the rosy reports issued by Mackensen, who was inclined to tell the Fuehrer what the latter wanted to hear. See Hoettl, 221–225; and Schellenberg, 385–386.
5. Dollmann, Interpreter, 229.
6. With Mussolini’s blessing: Denis Mack Smith, Mussolini, 290.
7. Westphal, 167.
8. Allowed thousands of merchant vessels to cross: Buderi, Invention, 168.
9. Doenitz, 341.
10. Endless sorties into Germany during the first half of the year: Liddell Hart, Second World War, 600.
11. Sanctioned the use of carpet-bombing: Rhodes, Atomic Bomb, 471.
12. Nothing less than “unconditional surrender”: Garland and Smyth, 11.
13. Hitler noticed trembling in his left arm and leg: Bullock, Hitler, 419. Note: Irving, Secret Diaries of Hitler’s Doctor, 52, indicates that this trembling occurred early in 1943.
14. Tremors grew worse despite treatment: Bullock, Hitler, 419. Crossed his right hand over his left, and pushed his foot against stationary objects: Ibid., 420.
15. A slight limp: Ibid., 420; and Irving, Secret Diaries of Hitler’s Doctor, 52.
16. Hitler was a hypochondriac: Irving, Secret Diaries of Hitler’s Doctor, 10. Large amounts of drugs: Bullock, Hitler, 420. Various drugs, vitamins, glucose injections, hormones: Irving, Secret Diaries of Hitler’s Doctor, 60–72.
17. Morell became indispensable: Bullock, Hitler, 420–421.
18. Contributed to Hitler’s deterioration: Ibid. Used Hitler as a guinea pig: Irving, Secret Diaries of Hitler’s Doctor, 61.
19. Seventy-seven different medications: Irving, Secret Diaries of Hitler’s Doctor, 60.
20. Corvaja, 299.
21. Liddell Hart, Rommel Papers, 428.
22. In mid-July: Shirer, 1000.
23. Warlimont, 334.
24. Corvaja, 147.
25. “Arrogant islanders”: Trevor-Roper, Testament, 42 (Hitler said this in 1945).
26. Second largest city: Rhodes, Atomic Bomb, 471.
27. Aim was to destroy the city: Ibid.
28. Coin the term Feuersturm: Ibid., 473.
29. Temperatures of 1,400 degrees Fahrenheit, killing tens of thousands and destroying eight square miles: Ibid., 474.
30. Roasted alive: Ibid. Trapped in melting asphalt: Buderi, Invention, 191.
31. Gilbert, 39–40.
32. Ibid., 40.
33. Ibid., 40–41.
34. Ibid., 41.
35. Ibid.
36. Ibid., 42.
37. Ibid.
38. Hewel, Ribbentrop’s man: Trevor-Roper, Last Days, 190 (in a footnote).
39. Gilbert, 43.
40. Ibid., 44.
41. Ibid., 47.
42. Badoglio had issued a cover story: Plehwe, 42–43, 65.
43. Purely a domestic matter: Ibid., 42.
44. Italy would continue to fight: Ibid.
45. Hitler did not reply: Ibid., 65.
46. Gilbert, 48.
47. Ibid.
48. Ibid.
49. Ibid. About thirty-five miles north of Rome near Lake Bolsena: Garland and Smyth, 283.
50. Squeezed into the northeastern corner: Stokesbury, Short History of World War II, 294.
51. Gilbert, 49.
52. Ibid.
53. Ibid.
54. Ibid.
55. Ibid., 50–51.
56. Ibid., 51–52.
57. Ibid., 52.
58. Junge, 114.
59. Thirteenth meeting: Denis Mack Smith, Modern Italy, 413; and Hibbert, 196.
60. Wear down the enemy, conserve German forces, and delay an assault on the Third Reich: Alfieri, 229.
61. Ibid. (from a memo dated July 12).
62. Ibid.
63. Trevor-Roper, Bormann Letters, 14 (the letter is dated July 23).
64. Hitler’s 60,000 Germans versus invasion force of 500,000 men: See Liddell Hart, Second World War, 440, 445.
65. Garland and Smyth, 242.
66. Ibid.
67. Whip up the martial spirit: Shirer, 996; Bullock, Hitler, 412; Plehwe, 28; and Warlimont, 339.
Chapter 3
1. Alfieri, 93.
2. First made contact in the early 1920s: Denis Mack Smith, Mussolini, 172.
3. Hitler, 681.
4. Italian trains to run on time: Monelli, 101.
5. Doled out cash and offered assistance: Denis Mack Smith, Mussolini, 172–173.
6. Flattered by Hitler’s admiration: Ibid., 173.
7. Asking for a signed photograph: Hibbert, 95; and Monelli, 128.
8. Monelli, 129.
9. A bronze bust of Mussolini; the Munich headquarters: Denis Mack Smith, Mussolini, 173. In his office: Toland, Hitler, 247.
10. Disarmed and politically isolated: Shirer, 209.
11. Austria was a security buffer: Denis Mack Smith, Mussolini, 218.
12. Believed he could overrule Anschluss: Ibid., 183.
13. Ibid., 183 (from Documents Diplomatiques Français).
14. War and race: Ibid., 185; and Starhemberg, 147–148.
15. Dombrowski, 7.
16. Compared Hitler to a broken record: Denis Mack Smith, Mussolini, 185.
17. Rachele Mussolini, 144.
18. Ibid., 145.
19. Starhemberg, 166.
20. Ibid., 167.
21. Ibid.
22. Hitler’s aggressive swagger: Note: Wiskemann, 44, indicates that relations between Hitler and Mussolini were very bad during the first half of 1935.
23. Keeping Hitler in check was important: Note: According to Denis Mack Smith, Mussolini, 193, Mussolini needed a measure of security on Italy’s northern border before launching the Ethiopian war.
24. Starhemberg, 212.
25. More popular than ever among the Italians: Denis Mack Smith, Modern Italy, 386. New Italian empire: Ibid., 392; and Monelli, 13
9–140, 143.
26. She was then twenty-four (1936): Monelli, 153.
27. Shortly after the Ethiopian war: Ibid., 152.
28. Photograph under her pillow: Ibid., 154.
29. Ciano was thirty-three: Denis Mack Smith, Mussolini, 206.
30. Ciano was cunning: Ciano, Diary, xi-xii.
31. Alfieri, 201.
32. Believed that the Western powers were on the decline: Denis Mack Smith, Mussolini, 206.
33. Favored an alliance with the Nazis: Ibid.
34. Muggeridge, 56.
35. The Nazis could dominate Eastern Europe and Mussolini could expand his empire: Denis Mack Smith, Mussolini, 208.
36. Ciano thought he could manipulate Hitler: Ibid.
37. United States and Italy, 2.
38. “Eight million bayonets”: Denis Mack Smith, Mussolini, 214.
39. Could raise 1.5 million soldiers: Denis Mack Smith, Modern Italy, 403.
40. Warplanes and artillery were out of date: Ibid., 400. Armed with 1890sstyle rifles: Ibid.; and Brendon, 568.
41. Blue-gray-colored uniform: Brendon, 565.
42. Maifeld: Shirer, 301. The Maifeld was near the Olympic Stadium: Brendon, 565. Coached on how to cheer: Ibid.
43. New York Times, September 29, 1937.
44. Ibid.
45. Made a profound impression: Denis Mack Smith, Mussolini, 215; and Brendon, 565.
46. Denis Mack Smith, Modern Italy, 393.
47. Dollmann, Interpreter, 107.
48. Shirer, 343.
49. Hibbert, 112.
50. Nazi salute was modeled on the Roman salute: Wiskemann, 26; Denis Mack Smith, Modern Italy, 389; and Monelli, 128.
51. Racial laws were decreed in the summer and fall of 1938: Brendon, 570. Affected the 40,000 to 70,000 Jews living in Italy: Denis Mack Smith, Mussolini, 221.
52. Jews were maligned in the press: Denis Mack Smith, Mussolini, 221.
53. Jews were to be expelled from Italian schools, purged from the military, forbidden to marry gentiles, and excluded from owning land or certain types of businesses: Brendon, 570.
54. Racial laws were not well received: Denis Mack Smith, Mussolini, 222; Wiskemann, 113; and Brendon, 570.