One Nation, Under Gods
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“It is hardly to be wondered”: Albion Tourgee, Out of the Sunset Sea (New York: Merrill & Baker, 1893), 260.
“Come and see the men”: The Journal of Christopher Columbus (London: Hakluyt Society, 1893) 41.
“I have already said”: Kay Brigham, ed., Libro de las Profecias de Colon (Terrassa: Editorial Clie, 1992), 38.
“When the Spaniards landed the islanders then referred the prophecy to them”: d’Anghiera, De Orbe Novo, Book 9.
“The Spaniards first assaulted the innocent Sheep”; “The Isle of Cuba”: Las Casas, Destruction of the Indies, preface.
“In Honour and Reverence”: Las Casas, Destruction of the Indies, “Of the Island Hispaniola.”
“cruelly and wickedly inclined”: Las Casas, Destruction of the Indies, “Of the Isle of Cuba.”
“killing them in great numbers and reducing the others to such a state of despair”: D’Anghera, De Orbe Novo, Book 8.
“Now will you yield good and abundant fruit?”: The relación of Fray Ramón Pane, online at http://faculty.smu.edu/bakewell/BAKEWELL/texts/panerelacion.html.
“a profligate Christian attempted to devirginate the Maid”; “This Deep, Bloody American Tragedy is now concluded”: Las Casas, Destruction of the Indies.
“Shalom… A salaam aleichem”: The notion that Columbus’s translator used Hebrew during his encounter with the New World is included in the opening chapter of a 1920 book of historical vignettes for Jewish School children (Elma Levinger, The New Land: Stories of Jews Who Had a Part in the Making of Our Country [New York: Bloch Publishing Co., 1920]) and in the newsletter of a Jewish American veterans association in 1938, and was used as a punch line by the comedian and performance artist Susan Mogul in the 1970s. Mel Brooks took the seeming incongruity of this early American use of a Jewish language one step further by making his Blazing Saddles Indians speak Yiddish.
Notes to Chapter 2
“Mustafa Zemmourri”: This chapter’s main figure is more commonly known by the names Esteban or Estanbanico, as he is called in various Spanish relaciónes. I have chosen to refer to him primarily as “Zemmouri” because it refers to all those from Azemmour and takes into account his identity before his enslavement and the loss of the religious tradition into which he was born.
“the king sent another navy of two hundred sail”: Leo Africanus, History and Description of Africa, Volume 2, quoted in Chouki El Hamel, Black Morocco: A History of Slavery, Race, and Islam (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2013), 141.
Magellan in Azemmour: Laurence Bergreeen, Over the Edge of the World (New York: HarperCollins, 2009), 19.
murabits within the ramparts: For a description of Muslim fortifications in Morocco, see Martin M. Elbl, “Portuguese Urban Fortifications in Morocco,” in City Walls: The Urban Enceinte in Global Perspective, edited by James D. Tracy (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2009), 357.
“In the year 734”: E. G. Ravenstein, Martin Behaim: His Life and His Globe (London, 1908), 77.
“He wore the mark of a saber slash across his face”: For more on Dorante’s appearance and biography see Andrés Reséndez, A Land So Strange: The Epic Journey of Cabeza de Vaca (New York: Basic Books, 2007), 50.
Requerimiento: There are several extant versions of the Spanish Requirement. The one likely used by the Narváez Expedition can be found in Ralph Emerson Twitchell, The Leading Facts of New Mexican History, Volume 1 (Cedar Rapids: The Torch Press, 1917), 61–63, and is also partially quoted in Paul Schneider, Brutal Journey: Cabeza de Vaca and the Epic First Crossing of North America (New York: Macmillan, 2007), 83–84. The original version of the text used here is quoted in John Tillotson’s The Golden Americas (London: Ward, Lock & Tyler, 1869), 35.
“remarkable document”: Twitchell, 61.
“after we had eaten the dogs”: The Journey of Alvar Nunez Cabeza de Vaca, Translated from his own Narrative, by Fanny Bandelier (New York: Williams Barker Co., 1904), 114.
“One-third of our people were dangerously ill”: Ibid, 35.
“stirrups, spurs, cross-bows”: Ibid., 35.
“The rest of us, as naked as we had been born”: Ibid., 57.
“The men have one of their nipples perforated”: Ibid., 64.
“Upon seeing the disaster we had suffered”; “When the lament was over”: Ibid., 58.
“Arabic terms have been found”: Ana Marcos Maíllo, “Los Arabismos Más Utilizados por los Conquistadores de Nueve España en el Sigle XVI,” Res Diachronicae 2 (2003): 228–35.
“a la manera de albornoces moriscos”; “muy bien vestidas”: Quoted in Mailo, 229. See also Bernal Díaz del Castillo, Historia verdadera de la conquista de la Nueva España, Volume 2 (Oficina tipográfica de la secretaría de fomento, 1905), 165.
“la zambra de los moros”: Quoted by Mailo, 229. See also Francisco López de Gómara, Historia de Mexico (1554), 107
“married or betrothed through the rite and custom of the Moors”: For an example of an Edict of Faith targeting Muslims, see Helen Rawlings, The Spanish Inquisition (Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons, 2008), 77.
“these Moors”: Quoted in John Huxtable Elliott, Spain, Europe and the Wider World, 1500–1800 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2009), 194.
“military and political ritual”; “The first formal step of jihad”: Patricia Seed, Ceremonies of Possession in Europe’s Conquest of the New World, 1492–1640 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 69–99.
For more on Cortés’s tendency to use Islamic terms, see D. A. Brading, The First America: The Spanish Monarchy, Creole Patriots and the Liberal State, 1492–1866 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 26.
mound-building cultures: The description of precolonial American cities here is informed by the prologue to Daniel K. Richter’s Facing East from Indian Country (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2001), 1–10.
“were there made slaves”: “Joint Report” of Cabeza de Vaca, Andrés Dorantes de Carranza, and Alonso de Castillo in Cabeza de Vaca’s Adventures in the Unknown Interior of America (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1983), 77.
“On the Island I have spoken of”: Cabeza De Vaca, 68.
“The way we treated the sick”: Ibid., 70.
“It was the negro”: Ibid., 158.
“at dances, or as medicine,” Ibid., 129.
“land of Christians”: Ibid., 135.
“A hawkbell of copper”: Ralph Emerson Twitchell, The Leading Facts of New Mexican History, Volume 1, (Cedar Rapids: Torch Press, 1911), 97.
“pearls and great riches on the coast”: Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, Volume 14, Part 1 (U.S. Government Printing Office, 1896), 350.
“land of Christians”: Cabeza de Vaca, 135.
“large and powerful villages, four and five stories high”: Pedro Reyes Castañeda, The Journey of Coronado: 1540–1542 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1896), 474.
“I sent Estéban de Dorantes”; “a very large cross”; and other quotes from the account of Friar Marcos: The Journey of Fray Marcos de Niza (Dallas: Southern Methodist University Press, 1987), 28–36.
“It seems that, after the friars”: Castañeda, 474.
“Marabout are assumed to have mystical powers…”: Donald Martin Carter, States of Grace: Senegalese in Italy and the New European Immigration (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1997), 94.
“a black man with a beard, wearing things that sounded, rattles, bells, and plumes, on his feet and arms”: Smithsonian Institution, Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, Volume 14, Part 1 (1896).
“lived on among the Zunis for many years, finally dying an old deity”; “placed him flat on his back and worshipped him as a god”: Quoted in Hsain Ilahiane, “Estevan de Dorantes, the Moor or the Slave? The Other Moroccan Explorer of New Spain,” Journal of North African Studies 5, no. 3 (Autumn 2000): 1–14.
Beginning in 1680: For more on the Pueblo Revolt se
e David Roberts, The Pueblo Revolt: The Secret Rebellion That Drove the Spaniards Out of the Southwest (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2008). Popé’s revival of the suppressed kachina dance is described on page 140.
“holy war”: Robert Silverberg, The Pueblo Revolt (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1994), 114.
“The general in command, Francisco Vazquez Coronado rode at the head of some two hundred and fifty horsemen”: Winship’s introduction to Pedro Reyes Castañeda, The Journey of Coronado: 1540–1542 (New York: A. S. Barnes & Co., 1904), vii.
“I always notice”: Castañeda, 472.
Notes to Chapter 3
“Now the only way to avoid this shipwreck”: John Winthrop, “A Model of Christian Charity,” online at http://religiousfreedom.lib.virginia.edu/sacred/charity.html.
A layman and a lawyer: For more on the ambivalent influence of legal thinking on Winthrop’s lay sermon and Puritan mindset, see Andrew Delbanco, The Puritan Ordeal (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1991), 68–80. Delbanco notes Winthrop’s sermon is often seen as a starting point, “enshrined as a kind of Ur-text of American literature” (72).
“a bulwark against the kingdom of Anti-Christ”; “God hath provided”; “this land grows weary”: John Winthrop, “Arguments for the Plantation of New England,” Winthrop Papers V, Massachusetts Historical Society.
“recent biographers have noted”: See Francis J. Bremer, John Winthrop: America’s Forgotten Founding Father (New York: Oxford University Press, 2003), 174–175.
“delighted to show forth”; “high and eminent”; “The work we have in hand”; “But if our hearts shall turn”: Winthrop, “A Model of Christian Charity.”
“the leader and standard-bearer of an impious and abominable kingdom”: John Calvin, Institutes of the Christian Religion, chapter 7. Electronic edition available through the Christian Classics Ethereal Library: www.ccel.org/ccel/calvin/institutes.
“infected both heaven and earth”: Théodore de Bèze, The Life of John Calvin (Philadelphia: J. Wenthem, 1836), 60.
“Whoever shall now contend that it is unjust to put heretics and blasphemers to death”: Quoted in “Calvin’s Defence of the Death Penalty for Heretics,” topic 157, in History of the Christian Church, Volume VIII: Modern Christianity, the Swiss Reformation, edited by Philip Schaff (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1984).
“After we had escaped the cruel hands of persecuting prelates”: Thomas Weld, preface to A Short Story of the Rise, Reign, and Ruine of the Antinomians, Familists & Libertines (1644).
“The chief occasion was… the much sickness of pox and fevers”; “The devil would never cease to disturb our peace”; “good esteem for godliness”; “the poorer sort of people”: John Winthrop, The History of New England from 1630 to 1649 (Boston: Phelps and Farnham, 1825), 284.
“a man godly and zealous”: William Bradford, quoted in Annals of New England, Part II, Sec. 2 (Boston: Collections of the Massachusetts Historical Society, 1826), 48.
“the said opinions were adjudged by all”: John Winthrop, The History of New England from 1630 to 1649 (Boston: Phelps and Farnham, 1825), 162–63.
“From Adam and Noah that they spring”: This and following Williams quotes from “To Dear and Welcome Friends and Countrymen,” republished by Narragansett Club, in Publications, Volume 1 (Providence, 1866).
“a woman of a ready wit and bold spirit”: Winthrop, The History of New England from 1630 to 1649, 200.
“The last and worst of all”: Weld, preface to A Short Story of the Rise, Reign, and Ruine.
“a very proper and fair woman… notoriously infected with Mrs. Hutchinson’s errors”; “a monster… a fish, a beast, and a fowl”; “It was of ordinary bigness”; “When it died in the mother’s body”: Winthrop, The History of New England from 1630 to 1649, 261–62.
“thirty monstrous births”: Weld, preface to A Short Story of the Rise, Reign, and Ruine.
“troubled the peace of the commonwealth and the churches here,” and all following dialogue between Hutchinson and her interrogators: “The Examination of Mrs. Anne Hutchinson at the Court at Newton. 1637,” online at http://www.constitution.org/primarysources/hutchinson.html.
Notes to Chapter 4
“described as ‘black’ ”: Statements found in the Maryland State Archives suggest that Lumbrozo may have been a Jew of North African descent. See, for example, the note at the bottom of the biographical sketch found online at http://msa.maryland.gov/megafile/msa/speccol/sc3500/sc3520/014000/014037/html/14037bio.html.
For details on the kinds of enticements offered to physicians to settle in colonial Maryland, see “Land Notes: 1634–1655,” Maryland Historical Magazine 6 (1911): 65.
“customary usury”; “present indigence”; “Such hateful enemies”: Peter Stuyvesant, “Petition to Expel the Jews from New Amsterdam,” September 22, 1654, in The Jew in the Modern World, edited by Paul Mendes-Flohr and Yehuda Reinharz (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), 452.
“We would have liked”: “Reply to Stuyvesant’s Petition,” The Jew in the Modern World, 453.
“No man shall raise or bring forward any question or argument on the subject of religion”: Esther Singleton, Dutch New York (New York: Dodd, Mead, and Co., 1909), 187.
“His Lordship requires his said Governor & Commissioners”: Percy G. Skirven, The First Parishes of the Province of Maryland (Baltimore: Norman Remington, 1923), 7.
“the linens were lost”: Harry Wright Newman, The Flowering of the Maryland Palatinate (Washington, 1961), 39.
“Upon the whole, they cultivate generous minds”: Andrew White, Relatio Itineris in Marilandiam; Relation of the Colony of the Lord Baron of Baltimore (1847), 23.
“It was informed the governour”: Winthop, The History of New England from 1630 to 1649, 136.
“The only spot on the earth where the principle of Live and Let Live was the law of the land”: Hester Dorsey Richardson, Sidelights on Maryland History (Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins, 1903), 75.
“Bee it therefore ordayned”: Maryland’s Act Concerning Religion, quoted in Richard H. Clarke, “Maryland or Rhode Island… Which Was First?” American Catholic Quarterly Review, Volume XX (Philadelphia: Charles Hardy, 1895), 292.
“beguile or deceive”: Archives of Maryland, Volume 1, edited by William Hand Browne, Clayton Colman Hall, and Bernard Christian Steine (Baltimore: Maryland Historical Society, 1883), 360–62.
“His disciples stole him away”: This and other quotes from the proceedings against Jacob Lumbrozo come from court documents and biographical details collected in the Maryland state archives.
“The Lord said”: Exodus 7:8–12.
“I doe hereby pardon & acquit”: Quoted in J. H. Hollander, “Some Unpublished Material Relating to Dr. Jacob Lumbrozo, of Maryland,” Publications of the American Jewish Historical Society, No. 1 (Philadelphia, 1905), 39.
“to extend to the sect of people”: An image of Maryland’s “Jew Bill” of 1826 appears in Lauren R. Silberman, The Jewish Community of Baltimore (Charleston: Arcadia Publishing, 2008), 14.
Notes to Chapter 5
“the greatest fire that ever happened in Boston”: Robert C. Winthrop, quoted in R. H. Conwell, History of the Great Fire in Boston (Boston: B. B. Russell, 1873), 32.
“Lost-town”: Cotton Mather noted Boston was so called “for the mean and sad circumstance of it.” Magnalia Christi Americana, Or, The Ecclesiastical History of New-England: From Its First Planting, in the Year 1620, Unto the Year of Our Lord 1698. Volume 1. (Hartford: S. Andrus and Son, 1855), 91.
“a grand triumph”; “grand climax”: Arthur Wellington Brayley, A Complete History of the Boston Fire Department (Boston: John P. Dale, 1889), 16.
“provoked the Lord to bring His Judgments on New-England”: Increase Mather, quoted in Williston Walker, The Creeds and Platforms of Congregationalism (Boston, 1893), 423–31.
“Ah, Boston! Thou hast seen the vanity of all worldly possessions”: Cotton Mather, Magnalia Christi A
mericana, 104.
“That God hath a Controversy” and quotes following are from Increase Mather’s classic jeremiad of 1679, available online at http://www.swarthmore.edu/SocSci/bdorsey1/41docs/34-jer.html.
“Tattuba”; “Negroes Stock Cattle and Utensils”: quoted in Elaine Breslaw, Tituba: Reluctant Witch of Salem (New York: New York University Press, 1996), 24.
“in which with their various instruments”; “victuals and strong liquor”: Elizabeth A. McAlister, Rara!: Vodou, Power, and Performance in Haiti and Its Diaspora, Volume 1 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002), 32.
“direct, expresse, presumptuous or high handed Blasphemie”: “Body of Liberties” (1641); American Historical Documents: 1000–1904 (New York: P. F. Collier & Son, 1910), 84.
“It was not any worldly consideration that brought our Fathers into this wilderness, but Religion”: Increase Mather, quoted in Williston Walker, The Creeds and Platforms of Congregationalism (Boston, 1893), 423–31.
“not having the fear of God before her eyes and being instigated by the devil”: Witch-Hunting in Seventeenth-Century New England: A Documentary History, 1638–1693, edited by David D. Hall (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2005), 261.
“The Indians, in their wars with us, finding sore inconvenience in our dogs”: Cotton Mather, Magnalia Christi Americana; also quoted in William Scranton Simmons, Spirit of the New England Tribes: History and Folklore, 1620–1984 (Lebanon, NH: University Press of New England, 1986), 54.