Fish, “Mechanics, Power Output, and Efficiency of the Swimming Muskrat
( Ondatra zibethicus),” Journal of Experimental Biology 110 (1984): 183–210.
5. F. E. Fish, “Dolphin Swimming: A Review,” Mammal Review 4 (1991):
181–95. F. E. Fish, “Power Output and Propulsive Efficiency of Swimming Bot-
tlenose Dolphins ( Tursiops truncatus),” Journal of Experimental Biology 185
(1993): 179–93.
6. U. M. Norberg, “Flying, Gliding, Soaring,” in Functional Vertebrate
Morphology, ed. M. Hildebrand, D. M. Bramble, K. F. Liem, and D. B. Wake
(Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 1985), 129–58.
7. P. W. Webb and R. W. Blake, “Swimming,” in Functional Vertebrate Mor-
phology, ed. M. Hildebrand, D. M. Bramble, K. F. Liem, and D. B. Wake (Cam-
bridge, MA: Belknap Press, 1985), 110–28.
8. Humans do create lift with their feet when doing the butterfly stroke.
9. F. E. Fish, “Kinematics and Estimated Thrust Production of Swimming
Harp and Ringed Seals,” Journal of Experimental Biology 137 (1988): 157–73.
10. A. W. English, “Limb Movements and Locomotor Function in the Cali-
fornia Sea Lion,” Journal of Zoology, London, 178 (1976): 341–64. F. E. Fish,
“Influence of Hydrodynamic Design and Propulsive Mode on Mammalian
Swimming Energetics,” Australian Journal of Zoology 42 (1993): 79–101.
11. G. C. Hickman, “Swimming Ability in Talpid Moles, with Particular Ref-
erence to the Semi-Aquatic Mole Condylura cristata,” Mammalia 48 (1984): 505–13.
12. F. E. Fish, “Transitions from Drag-Based to Lift-Based Propulsion in
Mammalian Swimming,” American Zoologist 36 (1996): 628–41.
13. T. M. Williams, “Locomotion in the North American Mink, a Semi-
Aquatic Mammal, I: Swimming Energetics and Body Drag,” Journal of Experi-
mental Zoology 103 (1983): 155–68.
14. F. E. Fish, “Association of Propulsive Mode with Behavior in River Otters
( Lutra canadensis),” Journal of Mammalogy 75 (1994): 989–97.
15. J. G. M. Thewissen and F. E. Fish, “Locomotor Evolution in the Earliest
Cetaceans: Functional Model, Modern Analogues, and Paleontological Evi-
dence,” Paleobiology 23 (1997): 482–490.
16. S. Bajpai and J. G. M. Thewissen, “A New, Diminuitive Whale from Kach-
chh (Gujarat, India) and Its Implications for Locomotor Evolution of Ceta-
ceans,” Current Science (New Delhi) 79 (2000): 1478–82. J. G. M. Thewissen
Notes | 219
and S. Bajpai, “New Skeletal Material for Andrewsiphius and Kutchicetus,
Two Eocene Cetaceans from India,” Journal of Paleontology 83 (2009):
635–63.
17. P. D. Gingerich, “Land-to-Sea Transition in Early Whales: Evolution of
Eocene Archaeoceti (Cetacea) in Relation to Skeletal Proportions and Locomo-
tion of Living Semiaquatic Mammals,” Paleobiology 29 (2003): 429–54.
18. E. A. Buchholtz, “Implications of Vertebral Morphology for Locomotor
Evolution in Early Cetacea,” in The Emergence of Whales: Evolutionary Pat-
terns in the Origin of Cetacea, ed. J. G. M. Thewissen (New York, NY: Plenum
Press, 1998), 325–52.
19. R. Dehm and T. zu Oettingen-Spielberg, “Palaeontologische und geolo-
gische Untersuchungen im Tertiaer von Pakistan, 2: Die mitteleozaenen Sauege-
tiere von Ganda Kas bei Basal in Nord-West Pakistan,” Abhandlungen der Bay-
erischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Mathematisch.-Naturwissenschaftliche
Klasse 91 (1958): 1–53.
20. S. Bajpai and P. D. Gingerich, “A New Archaeocete (Mammalia, Cetacea)
from India and the Time of Origin of Whales,” Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences 95 (1998): 15464–68.
21. J. G. M. Thewissen, E. M. Williams, and S. T. Hussain, “Eocene Mammal
Faunas from Northern Indo-Pakistan,” Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 21
(2001): 347–66.
22. K. K. Smith, “The Evolution of the Mammalian Pharynx,” Zoological
Journal of the Linnean Society 104 (1992): 313–49.
23. J. S. Reidenberg and J. T. Laitman, “Anatomy of the Hyoid Apparatus in
Odontoceti (Toothed Whales): Specializations of their Skeleton and Muscula-
ture Compared with Those of Terrestrial Mammals,” Anatomical Record 240
(1994): 598–624.
24. The hyoid of humans is a single bone, located in the midline of the neck,
but embryologically, it consists of three bones. In most mammals, there are even
more: a dog has nine, for instance.
25. E. J. Slijper, Whales (New York, NY: Basic Books, 1962).
26. S. Nummela, S. T. Hussain, and J. G. M. Thewissen, “Cranial Anatomy of
Pakicetidae (Cetacea, Mammalia) , ” Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 26
(2006): 746–59.
27. B. Møhl, W. W. L. Au, J. Pawloski, and P. E. Nachtigall, 1999, “Dolphin
Hearing: Relative Sensitivity as a Function of Point of Application of a Contact
Sound Source in the Jaw and Head Region,” Journal of the Acoustical Society of
America 105 (1999): 3421–24.
28. S. Nummela, J. G. M. Thewissen, S. Bajpai, T. Hussain, and K. Kumar,
“Sound Transmission in Archaic and Modern Whales: Anatomical Adaptations
for Underwater Hearing,” Anatomical Record 290 (2007):716–33. S. Num-
mela, J. G. M. Thewissen, S. Bajpai, S. T. Hussain, and K. K. Kumar, “Eocene Evo-
lution of Whale Hearing,” Nature 430 (2004): 776–78.
29. S. I. Madar, J. G. M. Thewissen, and S. T. Hussain, “Additional Holotype
Remains of Ambulocetus natans (Cetacea, Ambulocetidae), and Their Implica-
tions for Locomotion in Early Whales,” Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 22
(2002): 405–22.
220 | Notes
30. Y. Narita and S. Kuratani, “Evolution of the Vertebral Formulae in Mam-
mals: A Perspective on Developmental Constraints,” Journal of Experimental
Zoology Part B: Molecular and Developmental Evolution 15 (2005): 91–106. J.
Müller, T. M. Scheyer, J. J. Head, P.M. Barrett, I. Werneburg, P. G. Ericson, D.
Polly, and M. R. Sánchez-Villagra,
“Homeotic Effects, Somitogenesis and the
Evolution of Vertebral Numbers in Recent and Fossil Amniotes,” Proceedings of
the National Academy of Sciences 107 (2010): 2118–23.
31. M. M. Moran, S. Bajpai, J. C. George, R. Suydam, S. Usip, and J. G. M.
Thewissen, “Intervertebral and Epiphyseal Fusion in the Postnatal Ontogeny of
Cetaceans and Terrestrial Mammals,” Journal of Mammalian Evolution (2014),
doi:10.1007/s10914–014–9256–7.
32. J. G. M. Thewissen, S. I. Madar, and S. T. Hussain, “Ambulocetus natans,
an Eocene Cetacean (Mammalia) from Pakistan,” Courier Forschungs.-Institut
Senckenberg 190 (1996): 1–86. L. J. Roe, J. G. M. Thewissen, J. Quade, J. R.
O’Neil, S. Bajpai, A. Sahni, and S. T. Hussain, “Isotopic Approaches to Under-
standing the Terrestrial to Marine Transition of the Earliest Cetaceans,” in
The Emergence of Whales: Evolutionary Patterns in the Origin of Cetacea,
ed. J. G. M. Thewissen (New York, NY: Plenum Press, 1998), 399–421. S. I.
Madar, J. G. M. Thewissen, and S. T. Hussain, “Additional Holotype Remains of
Ambulocetus natans (Cetacea, Ambulocetidae), and their Implications for
Locomotion in Early Whales,” Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 22 (2002):
405–22.
33. D. Gish, “When Is a Whale a Whale?” Acts & Facts 23 (1994, No. 4).
http://www.icr.org/article/when-whale-whale/.
34. K. Miller, Finding Darwin’s God: A Scientist’s Search for Common
Ground between God and Evolution (New York, NY: HarperCollins, 1999).
35. L. Van Valen, “Deltatheridia: A New Order of Mammals,” Bulletin of the
American Museum of Natural History 132 (1966): 1–126.
36. M. Goodman, J. Czelusniak, and J. E. Beeber, “Phylogeny of the Primates
and Other Eutherian Orders: A Cladistics Analysis Using Amino Acids and
Nucleotide Sequence Data,” Cladistics 1 (1985): 171–85.
chapter 5. when the mountains grew
1. The term Himalayas is used in two different senses. It refers loosely to all
the mountains on the northern side of India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh. More
specifically, it refers to one particular mountain range in that area, with a geo-
logical history that is very different from the others.
2. University of California Museum of Paleontology, “Alfred Wegener
(1880–1930),” http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/history/wegener.html.
3. G. E. Pilgrim, “Middle Eocene Mammals from Northwest India,” Proceed-
ings of the Zoological Society 110 (1940): 124–52.
4. R. Dehm and T. zu Oettingen-Spielberg, “Paläontologische und geolo-
gische Untersuchungen im Tertiär von Pakistan, 2: Die mitteleozänen Säugetiere
von Ganda Kas bei Basal in Northwest Pakistan,” Abhandlungen der Bayer-
ischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Mathematisch.-Naturwissenschaftliche
Klasse 91 (1958): 1–54.
Notes | 221
5. R. M. West, “Middle Eocene Large Mammal Assemblage with Tethyan
Affinities, Ganda Kas Region, Pakistan,” Journal of Paleontology 54 (1980):
508–33.
6. J. G. M. Thewissen, S. I. Madar, and S. T. Hussain, 1996, “Ambulocetus
natans, an Eocene Cetacean (Mammalia) from Pakistan,” Courier Forschungs-
Institut Senckenberg 190 (1996): 1–86. Some years later we were able to go
back and to excavate the remainder of the holotype of Ambulocetus natans.
Those fossils are described in S. I. Madar, J. G. M. Thewissen, and S. T. Hussain,
“Additional Holotype Remains of Ambulocetus natans (Cetacea, Ambuloceti-
dae), and Their Implications for Locomotion in Early Whales,” Journal of Ver-
tebrate Paleontology 22 (2002): 405–22.
7. A. Sahni, “Enamel Ultrastructure of Fossil Mammalia: Eocene Archaeoceti
from Kutch,” Journal of the Palaeontological Society of India 25 (1981): 33–37.
8. M. C. Maas and J. G. M. Thewissen, “Enamel Microstructure of Pakicetus
(Mammalia: Archaeoceti),” Journal of Paleontology 69 (1995): 1154–63.
chapter 6. passage to india
1. Panjab is a state in India; Punjab is a province of Pakistan. When the Brit-
ish ruled India, these were one; when the country broke into two, the province
was divided, too.
2. A. B. Wynne, “Memoir on the Geology of Kutch,” Memoirs of the Geo-
logical Survey of India 9 (1872).
3. A. Sahni and V. P. Mishra, “A New Species of Protocetus from the Middle
Eocene of Kutch, Western India,” Palaeontology 15 (1972): 490–95.
4. A. Sahni and V. P. Mishra, “Lower Tertiary Vertebrates from Western
India,” Monographs of the Palaeontological Society of India 3 (1975).
5. R. Kellogg, A Review of the Archaeoceti (Washington, DC: Carnegie Insti-
tute of Washington, 1936).
6. S. Bajpai and J. G. M. Thewissen, “Middle Eocene Cetaceans from the
Harudi and Subathu Formations of India,” in The Emergence of Whales: Evo-
lutionary Patterns in the Origin of Cetacea, ed. J. G. M. Thewissen (New York,
NY: Plenum Press, 1998), 213–34.
chapter 7. a trip to the beach
1. S. K. Biswas, “Tertiary Stratigraphy of Kutch,” Memoirs of the Geological
Society of India 10 (1992): 1–29.
2. S. K. Mukhopadhyay and S. Shome, “Depositional Environment and Basin
Development during Early Paleaeogene Lignite Deposition, Western Kutch,
Gujarat,” Journal of the Geological Society of India 47 (1996): 579–92.
chapter 8. the otter whale
1. S. Bajpai and J. G. M. Thewissen, “A New, Diminuitive Whale from Kach-
chh (Gujarat, India) and Its Implications for Locomotor Evolution of Cetaceans,”
Current Science (New Delhi) 79 (2000): 1478–82.
222 | Notes
2. A. Sahni and V. P. Mishra, “Lower Tertiary Vertebrates from Western
India,” Monographs of the Palaeontological Society of India 3 (1975).
3. K. Kumar and A. Sahni, “Remingtonocetus harudiensis: New Combina-
tion, a Middle Eocene Archaeocete (Mammalia, Cetacea) from Western Kutch,
India,” Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 6 (1986): 326–49.
4. P. D. Gingerich, M. Arif
, and W. C. Clyde, “New Archaeocetes (Mammalia,
Cetacea) from the Middle Eocene Domanda Formation of the Sulaiman Range,
Punjab, Pakistan,” Contributions of the Museum of Paleontology, University of
Michigan 29 (1995): 291–330.
5. J. G. M. Thewissen and S. Bajpai, “Dental Morphology of the Reming-
tonocetidae (Cetacea, Mammalia),” Journal of Paleontology 75 (2001): 463–65.
6. J. G. M. Thewissen and S. T. Hussain, “Attockicetus praecursor, a New
Remingtonocetid Cetacean from Marine Eocene Sediments of Pakistan,” Jour-
nal of Mammalian Evolution 7 (2000): 133–46.
7. V. Ravikant and S. Bajpai, “Strontium Isotope Evidence for the Age of
Eocene Fossil Whales of Kutch, Western India,” Geological Magazine 147
(2012): 473–77.
8. P. D. Gingerich, M. Ul-Haq, W. V. Koenigswald, W. J. Sanders, B. H. Smith,
and I. S. Zalmout, “New Protocetid Whale from the Middle Eocene of Pakistan:
Birth on Land, Precicial Development, and Sexual Dimorphism,” PLoS One 4
(2009): E4366.
9. L. N. Cooper, T. L. Hieronymus, C. J. Vinyard, S. Bajpai, and J. G. M. Thewis-
sen, “Feeding Strategy in Remingtonocetinae (Cetacea, Mammalia) by Constrained
Ordination,” in Experimental Approaches to Understanding Fossil Organisms, ed.
D. I. Hembree, B. F. Platt, and J. J. Smith (Dordrecht, Plenum, 2014), 89–107.
10. If the teeth had fallen out during life, the space in the jaw (the alveolus)
that the tooth was anchored in would be filled by new bone.
11. J. G. M. Thewissen and S. Bajpai, “New Skeletal Material of Andrews-
iphius and Kutchicetus, Two Eocene Cetaceans from India,” Journal of Paleon-
tology 83 (2009): 635–63.
12. R. Elsner, “Living in Water: Solutions to Physiological Problems,” in Biol-
ogy of Marine Mammals, ed. J. E. Reynolds III and S. A. Rommel (Washington,
The Walking Whales Page 34