The Golden Empire: Spain, Charles V, and the Creation of America
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2. CDI, 12: 201ff; CDI, 22: 201ff.
3. Díaz del Castillo, 2: 253.
4. See Gil, Los conversos, 2: 321.
5. I don’t, however, find him in Carmen Mena’s brilliant study of the expedition of Pedrarias.
6. Díaz del Castillo, 1: 136.
7. Polavieja, 156–57.
8. Robert Chamberlain, “La controversía entre Cortés y Velázquez,” Anales de la Sociedad Geográfica de Guatemala 19 (September 1943).
9. Paso, 1: 57.
10. Fifth letter from Cortés, in Letters from Mexico, Pagden, ed., 440.
11. Paso, 1: 78.
12. Ruiz de la Mota, evidence in his Información de servicios, Patronato 54, leg. 54, no. 7, r. 6. A copy is in my possession.
13. See his Información. In AGI, Patronato, leg. 54, no. 7, r. 6 of August 1531.
14. Among them the great jade mosaic mask of Palenque, or the Leyden Plaque.
15. Fray Diego de Landa, Relación de las cosas de Yucatán (Madrid, 1985), 29.
16. Ibid., 66.
17. Oviedo, 3: 398.
18. Probanza of Ibiacabal in AGI, Indiferente General 1204, quoted in Chamberlain.
19. Landa, Relación, 110.
20. Oviedo, 3: 399.
21. Letter of Montejo to Charles the Emperor, April 13, 1529, in CDI, 13: 87; Oviedo, 3: 399.
22. Robert S. Chamberlain, The Conquest and Colonization of the Yucatán (Washington, D.C., 1948), 49.
23. Landa describes, 51.
24. Oviedo, 3: 402.
25. Chamberlain, 54.
26. See my Conquest of Mexico, 96.
27. Landa, 57.
28. Enrique Otte, ed., Cartas privadas de emigrantes a Indias (Seville, 1988), 70–82.
29. Inga Clendinnen, Ambivalent Conquests (Cambridge, U.K., 1987), 26.
30. Handbook, vol. 3, part 2, 675.
31. Landa, Relación, 57.
32. Ibid., 72.
33. See Handbook, vol. 3, part 2, 661. An estimate of Ralph Roys.
34. Landa, Relación, 330.
35. Bernal Díaz, Historia, 1: 136; also my Conquest, 60.
36. Oviedo, 3: 404–405.
37. Ibid., 404.
38. Chamberlain, The Conquest, 73–74.
39. CDI, 13: 87–91.
40. Chamberlain, The Conquest, 36.
41. AGI Patronato, leg. 68, no. 1, r. 2.
42. Oviedo, 3: 411. There is an interesting illustration in the first edition of Oviedo of a horse in these circumstances.
43. Chamberlain, The Conquest, 88.
44. See my Conquest of Mexico, 324.
45. Chamberlain, The Conquest, 92.
46. Probanza of Lerma in AGI, Santo Domingo, leg. 9, r. 3.
47. Relación of Alonso de Ávila in CDI, 14: 100: “que las gallinas nos darían en las lancas y el maíz en las flechas.”
48. CDI, 14: 105: “falsa y con mal proposito.”
49. Oviedo, 3: 420–21.
50. CDI, 14: 111: “el señor Adelantado nos tenía por muertos.”
51. Oviedo, 3: 420.
52. Pagden, Letters, 414.
53. Chamberlain, The Conquest, 127.
54. Blas González, Probanza in AGI, Patronato, leg. 68, no. 1, r. 2.
55. Pedro Álvarez, in AGI, Mexico, leg. 916, no. 1, r. 1.
56. Clendinnen, Ambivalent,153.
57. Probanza of Francisco de Montejo in AGI, Patronato, leg. 65, no. 2, r. 1.
58. CDI, 2: 312.
59. Perhaps, says Pagden, there was a little gold mixed in, too.
60. Landa, Relación, 81–83.
CHAPTER 17. TO PASS THE SANDBAR
1. Pablo Pérez-Mallaína, Spain’s Men of the Sea (Baltimore, 1998), 64.
2. James Boswell, The Life of Samuel Johnson LLD (London, 1912), 1: 253, March 16, 1759.
3. Carande, 3: 123; C. H. Haring, Trade and Navigation Between Spain and the Indies (Cambridge, Mass., 1918), 198.
4. Antonio García-Baquero, La carrera.
5. Carmen Mena, Sevilla, 241.
6. Bernal, Financiación, 132.
7. Carande, 1: 368.
8. Bernal, Financiación, 133.
9. Carmen Mena, Sevilla, 251.
10. See APS, cited in my Conquest, 632.
11. Carmen Mena, Sevilla, 212.
12. Pierre and Huguette Chaunu, Séville et l’Atlantique (Paris, 1956), 6: 178–231.
13. Pérez-Maillaína, 102.
14. Gil, 1: 239–43. See, too, Enriqueta Vila Vilar and Guillermo Lohmann, Familia, linajes y negocios entre Sevilla y las Indias (Seville, 2003).
15. James Lockhart, Spanish Perú (Madison, Wisc., 1968), 119.
16. Pérez-Mallaína, 231.
17. Ibid., 192.
18. Ibid., 15.
19. C. H. Haring, The Spanish Empire in America (New York, 1947), 7.
20. C. H. Haring, Trade and Navigation (Cambridge, Mass., 1918), 120.
21. This is to run ahead of the narrative, but the supreme calculator Earl Hamilton estimated that from 1560 to 1650, precious metals counted for 82 percent of all the exports. Precious metals, remarked Pierre Chaunu, carried alone the weight of the Spanish empire.
22. This was the diet on Pedro Menéndez de Avilés’s ships in 1568.
23. Pérez-Mallaína, 143.
24. Haring, Trade, 288ff.
25. From 1569, a fine of 100,000 maravedís would have to be paid by anyone who traveled without a permit. The arrangement was made final in 1604, when anyone traveling without a permit would also be punished by four years in the galleys or, if the person was someone of quality, ten years in Oran. From 1614, ships leaving Seville could complete their cargoes at Cádiz. Seville maintained only the bureaucracy rather than the vigor of the real trade, and from 1664, ships could start off from Sanlúcar.
CHAPTER 18. BIRÚ
1. Terence D’Altroy, The Incas (Oxford, U.K., 2002), 291.
2. There have been found 470 varieties of potato (D’Altroy, 31).
3. A good account is in D’Altroy, 15ff.
4. Pedro Pizarro, Relación, 155.
5. Marx was interested in Peru but knew nothing of it.
6. See an interview with Jerónimo López, in Rivers of Gold, 515.
7. D’Altroy, 192.
8. “Oh! Can anything similar be claimed for Alexander or any of the powerful kings who ruled the world?” Cieza de León, 213–14. See, too, D’Altroy, 243ff.
9. D’Altroy, 233.
10. Hemming, 124–26.
11. D’Altroy, 172–74.
12. Pedro Pizarro, Relación, 89–90.
13. On the indigenous nature of this disease, see Rivers of Gold, 151–52.
14. D’Altroy, 44, suggests that the word Quechua was imposed by the Spaniards. It meant “valley speech”: qheswa simi.
CHAPTER 19. PIZARRO’S PREPARATIONS
1. Francisco de Jerez, Verdadera relación, vol. II; Cieza de Léon, 146. But Diego de Trujillo and Cristóbal de Mena wrote that there were 250 men (Relación, 45; Conquista del Perú, 70), and Pedro Pizarro said that there were 200 (Relación V, 171).
2. Raúl Porrás exposed the idea that he was a partner on the same level as the others. Raúl Porrás, “El Nombre de Perú,” Mar del Sur 6, no. 18 (1951): 26.
3. See also Guillermo Lohmann, Les Espinosa (Paris, 1968), 206ff. This con-quistador, said to have converso origins, is the only one whose family still possesses their home in Peru, which they obtained in 1535.
4. See Lockhart, Cajamarca, 75.
5. The notion of the small company perhaps with two or three members in search of commerce is considered well in Carande, 1: 289.
6. Oviedo, 5: 33.
7. Pedro Pizarro, 341.
8. Garcilaso, 2: 636. See, too, Carande 1: 289.
9. Enríquez de Guzmán, Libro, 106.
10. See Luisa Cuesta, “Una documentación interesante sobre la familia del con-quistador del Perú,” Revista de Indias 8 (1946), 866ff.
11. Hernando Pizarro, Carta a oidores de Santo Dom
ingo, Panama. It is published in Oviedo, 5: 84–90.
12. Pedro Pizarro, 341.
13. Cieza de León, 370.
14. Garcilaso, 2: 916, 972, 1076.
15. Pedro Pizarro, 146.
16. Garcilaso, 2: 601.
17. Pedro Pizarro, 148–49.
18. Ibid.
19. Pedro Pizarro, 150.
20. Cieza de Léon, 150.
21. Ibid., 152.
22. See Edmundo Guillén, Versión Inca de la conquista (Lima, 1974), 78.
23. Cieza de Léon, 154.
24. Garcilaso, 2: 662.
25. Pedro Pizarro, 151.
26. Others included Jerónimo de Aliaga, Gonzalo Farfán, Melchor Verdugo, and Pedro Díaz.
27. Cieza de Léon, 159.
28. For Ruiz de Arce’s account, see Miguel Muñoz de San Pedro, Tres testigos de la conquista de Perú (Madrid, 1964), 72–119.
29. Guillermo Lohmann, Les Espinosa.
30. Pedro Pizarro, 158.
31. See David Ewing Duncan, Hernando de Soto (New York, 1995), passim; also Busto Duthurburu, Pizarro, 1: 320.
32. The word is Hemming’s, The Conquest, 27.
33. Pedro Pizarro, 166.
34. See Garcilaso, 2: 820; and Hemming, The Conquest 302–304, pays much attention to him.
35. Garcilaso, 2: 663.
36. Miguel de Estete, “Descubrimiento y la conquista del Perú” (Quito, 1918), 20.
37. Cieza de Léon, 176.
38. Pedro Pizarro, 167.
39. Busto Duthurburu, Pizzaro, 1: 340.
40. Pedro Pizarro, 163.
41. Ibid., 162.
42. Ibid., 165, 88.
43. Estete, 21; Cieza de Léon, 181. Pizarro gave the name of San Miguel either because the archangel Michael had appeared in the sky during the recent battle or to recall his own baptism, at San Miguel in Trujillo.
44. Oviedo V, 2: 29.
45. Busto Duthurburu, 1: 369.
46. Lockhart, The Men, 352–53.
47. Busto Duthurburu, La Tierra, 385.
48. Pedro Pizarro, 173.
49. Ibid., 172.
50. Garcilaso, 2: 665.
51. Jerez, 326.
52. Oviedo, 3: 80.
53. CDHI, 18: 59.
CHAPTER 20. CAJAMARCA
1. Ruiz de Arce, cited in Lockhart, The Men, 346.
2. Oviedo, 84: “El camino era tan malo que de verdad si así fuera que allí nos esperaran … muy ligeramente nos llevaran.”
3. Ruiz de Arce, cited in Hemming, The Conquest, 32; Lockhart, The Men, 346.
4. Martín de Murúa, Historia general del Perú (Madrid, 1962), 206; Pedro Pizarro, 185.
5. Hemming, The Conquest, 34.
6. Ibid., 35, 549.
7. Pedro Pizarro, 176; Carmen Mena, Sevilla, 326.
8. Hemming, The Conquest, 37, 200.
9. Lockhart, The Men, passim.
10. Lockhart says one had been in Mexico but in a “marginal capacity.” Having made a special study of the men who accompanied Cortés, I see no sign of anyone of his band being important in Peru.
11. See Lockhart, The Men, 35–36.
12. Pedro Pizarro, 36.
13. Estete, 28–29.
14. Hemming, The Conquest, 37.
15. Diego de Trujillo, Relación del descubrimiento del reyno del Perú (Seville, 1948), 58.
16. Some chroniclers thought that there were three units of twenty horse each, the third being led by Benalcázar.
17. Pedro Pizarro, 86.
18. Hemming, The Conquest, 39–41.
19. Garcilaso, 2: 687.
20. Murúa, 269.
21. Garcilaso, 2: 691. See Hemming, The Conquest, 42–44, 442–43, 551.
22. Lockhart, The Men, 320.
CHAPTER 21. THE END OF ATAHUALPA
1. “Every schoolboy knows who imprisoned Montezuma, and who strangled Atahualpa.” Macaulay, Essay on Lord Clive.
2. Garcilaso, 2: 693.
3. Murúa, 210.
4. Hemming, The Conquest, 48, makes good sense of these figures.
5. Pedro Pizarro, 187.
6. Cristóbal de Mena, in “La conquista del Perú,” in Relaciones primitivas de la conquista del Perú, Raúl Porrás Barrenechea, ed. (Paris, 1937), 250.
7. Ibid., 248; Hemming, The Conquest, 47.
8. Lockhart, The Men, 196, looks on the expedition of Soto and del Berco as a myth.
9. Mena, 36–37. A palmo was the distance from the thumb to the little finger, the hand extended. “Hand” is a good translation.
10. Ibid., 263; Hemming, The Conquest, 64–65.
11. Guillén, Versión Inca, 58–59.
12. Hemming, The Conquest, 56.
13. Ibid., 65–67.
14. These two journeys need to be distinguished. See Lockhart, 285.
15. Murúa, 213.
16. “La persona del cacique es la más entendida e de más capacidad que se a visto e muy amigo de saber e entender nuestras cosas; es tanta que xuega el ajedrez harto bien.” Gaspar de Espinosa to Cobos, Panama, August 1, 1533, in CDI, 13: 70.
17. Hemming, The Conquest, 49.
18. Pedro Pizarro, 352.
19. Hemming, The Conquest, 55.
20. Murúa, 210.
21. Hemming, The Conquest, 52.
22. Ibid., 72–73, 408.
23. Duncan, 156.
24. Harkness Collection in the Library of Congress (Washington, D.C., 1932), 1: 7; see Lockhart, The Men, 299.
25. Lockhart, The Men, 96–102.
26. Actually of Cazalegas, five miles east of Talavera de la Reina; Lockhart, The Men, 189.
27. Oviedo, 5: 122.
28. Pedro Pizarro, 247; Hemming, The Conquest, 78.
29. Pedro Pizarro, 247.
30. Pedro Sancho de la Hoz, Relación de la conquista del Perú (Madrid, 1962), 127.
31. Pedro Pizarro, 220, 226.
32. CDI, 1: 523; Hemming, The Conquest, 80–81.
33. Cartas de Perú, Colección de documentos inéditos para la historia de Perú (Lima, 1959), 3: 64; Hemming, The Conquest, 89.
CHAPTER 22. NEWS OF PERU
1. CDI, 12: 46. Here “Dortal” is rendered “de Hortal.”
2. Jerez, Verdadera relación, 346. The actual figures were 708,580 and 49,008.
3. Hemming, The Conquest, 89.
4. Garcilaso, 2: 709.
5. Keniston, Cobos, 161.
6. Enríquez de Guzmán, Libro, 78.
7. Crane, Mercator, 66.
8. See Rafael Varón Gabai and Auke Pieter Jacobs, “Peruvian Wealth and Spanish Investments,” Hispanic American Historical Review 67 (1987).
9. Hemming, The Conquest, 144–45.
10. Not the Juan Fernández after whom Robinson Crusoe’s island was named.
11. Garcilaso, 2: 741.
12. Pedro Pizarro, 230.
13. See Hemming, The Conquest, 95–102, his source here being especially Sancho de Hoz.
14. Pedro Pizarro, 236.
15. These were Hernando de Toro, Miguel Ruiz, Gaspar de Marquina, Francisco Martín, and a certain Hernández.
16. Pedro Pizarro, 245.
17. Hemming, The Conquest, 118–19.
18. Sancho, Relación, 169.
19. Pedro Pizarro, 273.
20. Sancho, Relación, 88.
21. Cieza de León, 236–37.
22. “No aconteció cosa notable en el camino, ni tuvo cual dificultad ni contraste alguno.” Murúa, 224.
23. Ibid.
24. Hemming, The Conquest, 132.
25. Lockhart, The Men, 80–81.
26. Sancho, Relación, 164.
27. Estete, El descubrimiento, 54.
28. Ibid., quoted in Hemming, The Conquest, 127–28.
29. Pedro Pizarro, 273.
30. See Muñoz de San Pedro, Tres testigos, 54; Diego de Trujillo, Relación, 26.
31. Hemming, The Conquest, 136, thought that much of the treasure was probably stolen by Manco Capac’s servants (yanaconas).
32. See Jo
sé de la Puente Brunke, Encomienda y encomenderos en el Perú (Sevilla, 1992), especially his extraordinary Appendix 1.
33. Hemming, The Conquest, 152.
34. The best account is in Oviedo, 5: 204.
35. Hemming, The Conquest, 158.
36. Garcilaso, 2: 741.
37. Colección de documentos inédita para la historia de Chile desde el viaje de Magallenes hasta la batalla de Maipo, Jose Toribio Medina, ed. 30 vols. (Santiago de Chile, 1888–1902) II, 244, cited in Hemming, The Conquest, 162.
38. Hemming, The Conquest, 143.
39. Juan Ruiz de Arce, Advertencias de Juan Ruiz de Arce a sus succesores, in Muñoz de San Pedro, Tres testigos, quoted in Lockhart, The Men, 55.
40. Francisco López de Gomara, Hispania victrix (Madrid, 1846), 1: 231.
41. Juan Ruiz de Arce, Servicios en Indias, Antonio de Solar and José de Rújula, eds., quoted in Lockhart, 56.
42. Ruiz de Arce, Advertencias, 435–36.
43. Hemming, The Conquest, gives a wonderful account, 142.
CHAPTER 23. THE BATTLE FOR CUZCO
1. Cadenas, Carlos I, has the text, 76–81.
2. CDI, 16: 390.
3. Hemming, The Conquest, 174–75.
4. José Luis Martínez, Documentos cortesanos, 3: 40–41.
5. The document is in Cadenas, Carlos I, 1: 81.
6. CDI, 20: 217–485, gives the case for Almagro in great detail.
7. The first cabildo of Lima consisted of the treasurer Riquelme, the inspector (veedor) García de Salcedo, and the following Pizarrists: Rodrigo de Mazuelas, Alonso Palomino, Nicolás de Ribera el Mozo, Cristóbal de Peralta, Diego de Aguero, Diego Gavilán, and the mayor, Nicolás de Ribera. Mazuelas had represented Pizarro before the court, and he and Ribera became lifetime regidors. They were soon joined by Diego de Aguero and Nicolás de Ribera el Mozo. Antonio Picado, who was now Pizarro’s secretary, Crisóstomo de Hontiveros, and Pizarro’s half brother Francisco Martín de Alcántara also became members, as did Martín de Ampuero. Other officials appointed in those days included Pedro de Añasco as chief constable of Quito, Martín de Estete as lieutenant-governor in Trujillo, and Antonio de la Gama as the same, in Cuzco.
8. Antonio Bonet Correa, Monasterios Iberoamericanos (Madrid, 2001), 159.
9. CDI, 10: 237–332. An interesting report.
10. Lohmann, Espinosa, 233–34.