Stilicho: The Vandal Who Saved Rome

by Ian Hughes

  Spatha A long sword, probably of Germanic origin, that by the end of the fourth century was in common use in the Roman army.

  Spicula A heavy javelin, possibly the equivalent of the earlier pilum.

  Tela Thiudans Name given to a variety of Roman javelin. Gothic, the highest possible rank in Gothic society, this was normally only applied to a ruling Roman emperor.

  Thusundifath ‘Thousand-leader’: later rank in Germanic armies given to leaders of 1,000 men.

  Tribunus et notarius ‘Tribune and notary’: dignitary in the late Roman Empire.

  Tribunus praetorianus ‘Praetorian military tribune’: tribune and notary on the militaris military general staff.

  Tributari ‘Tributaries’: low-ranking military units possibly composed of barbarians serving in the army after defeat in battle.

  Verruta Name given to a variety of Roman javelin.

  Vicarius per Hispania ‘Vicar of Spain’: civil official serving under the Praetorian Prefect of Gaul administrating the provinces of Spain.

  Appendix II

  Outline Chronology

  235 Death of Severus Alexander: beginning of ‘Third Century crisis’.

  260 Valerian defeated and captured by Persians: Antioch sacked.

  284 Diocletian becomes emperor.

  305 Diocletian and Maximianus resign: Galerius made Augustus of the East, Constantius of the West. Severus made Caesar of the West, Maximinus Daia Caesar of the East.

  306 Constantius dies in York: the ‘British’ army proclaims Constantine as Augustus. Galerius proclaims Severus as Augustus. Constantine accepts junior post of Caesar. Maxentius, son of Maximianus, proclaimed Augustus in Rome: takes control of South Italy, Sardinia Corsica and Africa. Galerius refuses to recognize him.

  307 Severus maintains control of North Italy, and early in the year leads invasion in attempt to defeat Maxentius. Maxentius asks his father Maximianus to come out of retirement. Maximianus appeals to Severus’ troops, who served under him before his abdication. They renounce Severus and join Maximianus and Maxentius. Severus surrenders but is later killed. As there is now a vacancy for the post of Augustus in the West, Maxentius declares himself Augustus. In summer, Galerius invades Italy, but as many of his men desert to join the old Augustus Maximianus, he retires to the East. In order to cement an alliance, Constantine marries Fausta, daughter of Maximianus.

  308 Maximianus appeals to the troops in an attempt to depose his son; surprisingly, the attempt fails. Maximianus flees to Constantinople. The Congress of Carnuntum: Galerius continues in control of the East, with Maximinus Daia as his Caesar. Licinius made Augustus of the West, in place of the deceased Severus, with Constantine as Caesar. Maximinus Daia and Constantine now referred to as filii augustorum. Late in the year, Domitius Alexander acclaimed at Carthage. Maxentius loses control of Africa.

  309/310 Death of Maximianus: relations between Constantine and Maxentius deteriorate. Constantine cements alliance with Licinius. In an attempt to counter this, Maxentius approaches Maximinus Daia with an alliance proposal. Maximinus Daia assumes title of Augustus.

  310/311 Maxentius sends an army to Africa. It topples Alexander and reclaims the provinces for Maxentius.

  311 Death of Galerius. Maximinus Daia seizes control of his territories. In summer, a meeting between Maximinus Daia and Licinius see the two sharing Galerius’ lands.

  312 Constantine invades Italy and, after winning several battles, defeats Maxentius at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge. Death of Maxentius.

  313 February: marriage alliance between Licinius and Constantine signals end of Maximinus Daia’s treaty with Licinius. Daia crosses the Bosporus, takes Constantinople and begins the siege of Heracleia. Licinius arrives and defeats Daia, who retreats East. Licinius pursues and wins a battle at the Cilician Gates. Daia dies July/August.

  314 Battle of Cibalae: Constantine narrowly defeats Licinius.

  317 Battle of Campus Ardiensis: Constantine again narrowly defeats Licinius – possible peace treaty/agreement.

  324 Battle of the Hebrus River: Constantine’s army defeats and routs Licinius. Battle of Chrysopolis: Constantine’s army again defeats and routs Licinius. Licinius abdicates.

  325? Licinius executed.

  332 Constantine I defeats the Goths and agrees a treaty.

  337 Death of Constantine I. His three sons eliminate all other rivals except Gallus and Julian. They accept Constantine’s division of the Empire into three. Constantine II, the eldest, takes Gaul, Britain and Spain; Constantius II, the second son, takes the East, and Constans, the youngest, takes Italy, Pannonia and Africa.

  340 Constantine II invades Italy, but is defeated by Constans at Aquileia and dies. Constans becomes Augustus of the West.

  341 Constans bans pagan sacrifices in the West.

  341–2 Constans campaigns against the Franks.

  350 The general Magnentius, commanding on the Rhine, declares himself emperor. Constans’ troops defect to the usurper. He flees but is captured and killed.

  350-1 Constantius II campaigns against Magnentius. Defeats Magnentius at Battle of Mursa and becomes sole ruler of the Empire. Deciding that the Empire is too big to be ruled by one man, he appoints his cousin Gallus as Caesar in the East.

  354 Gallus executed: Constantius II attempts to withdraw the order for the execution, but this is ignored by the praepositus cubiculi, the eunuch Eusebius.

  355 Germanic invasions of the West and the revolt of Claudius Silvanus in Gaul cause Constantius II to elevate his last remaining cousin, Julian, to the rank of Caesar. Silvanus’ revolt quickly collapses.

  357 Battle of Strasbourg (Argentoratum): Julian defeats Alamanni.

  361 Constantius II orders Julian to send troops East. The troops refuse to go, instead elevating Julian to Augustus. Preparing for war, Constantius II dies in October: Julian becomes sole emperor.

  361–3 Julian attempts to eliminate Christianity and impose a form of Neo-Platonism on the Empire. Begins major reforms of the bureaucracy. Julian invades Persia, where he is killed. Jovian is elevated to Augustus.

  363-4 Jovian cedes territory to Persia in return for peace. He re-establishes Christianity as the official religion of the Empire.

  364 Death of Jovian, cause unknown. Valentinian I becomes emperor. He names his brother Valens as colleague. Valentinian I takes the West (Italy, Illyricum, Spain, Gaul, Britain and Africa) and Valens receives the East (Balkans, Greece, Egypt, Syria and Asia Minor).

  365 Valentinian I defeats invading tribes and ejects them from Roman territory.

  366 Procopius, last relative of Julian, proclaims himself emperor in the East. Battle of Thyatira and death of Procopius.

  367 German tribes cross the Rhine and sack Moguntiacum (Mainz). Valentinian I attacks and defeats them with heavy losses. The barbarian ‘coalition’ of Saxons, Picts and Scots invades Britain. Valens leads campaign against Goths, the first since that of Constantine I in 332. War breaks out with Persia.

  368 Valentinian I sends the comes Theodosius to Britain. Theodosius defeats the invaders and frees the provinces from occupation. As a reward, he is promoted to magister equitum praesentalis. Floods in the East prevent a second year of campaigning against the Goths. Romans invade Armenia in an attempt to put the Armenian prince Pap on the throne. The Persians counter-attack.

  369 Valens defeats the Goths and a treaty is signed.

  370 Second Roman invasion of Armenia.

  371 Shapur invades but is defeated and a truce is agreed.

  372 Firmus rebels in Africa. Theodosius sent to deal with the rebellion. Eventually, Firmus is betrayed and the rebellion is crushed.

  374 Treaty between Valentinian I and Macrianus, King of the Bucinobantes. The Quadi invade and devastate Pannonia. Valentinian I leads an army to face them. Theodosius, the son of the magister equitum praesentalis made Dux Moesia.

  375 Theodosius is arrested and executed. His son retires to his estates, possibly as a result of losing two legions fighting against the
Sarmatians. Valentinian I agrees to meet embassy from the Quadi, during which he goes into a rage and dies. His sons (Valens’ nephews), Gratian and Valentinian II, are made Augusti. Gratian is allotted Gaul, Spain and Britain; Valentinian II Italy, Illyricum and Africa. Revolt in Isauria.

  376 A large force of Goths appears on the border and requests admission to the Empire. Eventually, they are allowed to cross the Danube.

  377 The Goths rebel, possibly due to maltreatment: the Battle of Ad Salices. Saracen attacks devastate Phoenicia and Palestine. The attacks are defeated and the Isaurian revolt brought under control.

  378 With affairs in the East stable, Valens advances to face the Goths. Battle of Adrianople, defeat and death of Valens. Gratian orders Theodosius out of retirement and sends him to the East.

  379 Theodosius made Augustus by Gratian with orders to command in the East.

  382 After years of campaigning, Theodosius signs treaty with Goths, who are given land in the Balkans.

  383 Magnus Maximus declares himself emperor. He takes control of Britain, Gaul and Spain. Gratian dies while attempting to escape. Agreement reached between Maximus, Valentinian II and Theodosius to share the Empire.

  387 Maximus invades Italy; Valentinian II flees East.

  388 Theodosius defeats Maximus at the Battles of Siscia and Poetovio. Maximus is killed.

  388–92 Valentinian II rules Gaul from Vienne, supported by Theodosius’ appointee Arbogast.

  390 Theodosius orders the ‘massacre at Thessalonica’. Bishop Ambrose of Milan demands that Theodosius acts as a true penitent before granting him pardon for the act.

  391 Theodosius ambushed by Goths, ostensibly under Alaric, as he returns East.

  392 Valentinian II found hanged. Unknown whether suicide or murder. Arbogast elevates Eugenius to Augustus in the West Theodosius tolerates the appointment until troops can be gathered.

  393 Theodosius elevates son Honorius, aged eight, as Augustus in the West.

  393–4 Stilicho blockades Alaric into submission in the Balkans. Alaric forced to serve Theodosius in his upcoming campaign against Arbogast and Eugenius.

  394 Theodosius defeats Arbogast and Eugenius at the Battle of the Frigidus. Arbogast commits suicide, Eugenius is executed.

  395 Death of Theodosius. Honorius remains emperor of the West, Theodosius’ younger son Arcadius made emperor of the East. Stilicho guardian of the West. Hunnic raids across Caucasus Mountains. Alaric raises ‘rebellion’ in Balkans and Stilicho leads combined East/West armies to confront him. Stilicho is baulked by the order from Arcadius to return the Eastern troops to Constantinople and retires from Illyricum.

  396 Alaric moves into Greece. Stilicho leads a lightning campaign along the Rhine.

  397 Stilicho’s second campaign in Illyricum against Alaric. Stilicho is declared hostis publicus by Arcadius and again retires without defeating Alaric. Alaric made magister militum per Illyricum.

  398 Revolt of Gildo in Africa. Gildo defeated by his brother Mascezel and Africa returns its loyalty to Rome.

  400 Citizens of Constantinople rebel against the rule of Gainas. Thousands of Gainas’ troops are killed as they attempt to leave the city.

  401 Stilicho leads the army of Italy against Vandals and Alans in Rhaetia and Pannonia. Simultaneously, Alaric invades Italy.

  402 Stilicho returns to Italy and defeats Alaric at the Battles of Pollentia and Verona. Alaric accepts minor post in Pannonia.

  405-6 Radagaisus leads his Goths across the Alps into Italy. Stilicho defeats the main force at Faesulae and the others retreat from Italy.

  406-7 Stilicho plans the invasion of Illyricum. Alaric is sent to Epirus. Rebellion of Constantine III in Britain: Vandals, Alans and Sueves cross Rhine into Gaul. Constantine accepts service of Vandals, Alans and Sueves. Invasion of Illyricum cancelled.

  408 Sarus defeats forces of Constantine III but is forced to flee back to Italy. Didymus and Verinianus revolt against Constantine III in Spain but are defeated and killed. Death of the (Eastern) Emperor Arcadius. Honorius and Stilicho argue about the correct course of action to take. It is agreed that Stilicho will go to Constantinople to assume control of the new young Emperor Theodosius II. As Honorius inspects his troops at Pavia, they rebel and kill as many of Stilicho’s supporters as they can. Honorius gives the order for the arrest and execution of Stilicho. Stilicho’s son Eucherius is also killed. The troops kill the families of the German federates and the German troops flock to Alaric. First siege of Rome by Alaric. Serena, wife of Stilicho, executed in Rome.

  409 Vandals, Alans and Sueves cross into Spain. Second siege of Rome.

  410 Third siege and sack of Rome by Alaric.

  Appendix III

  Select Personalities

  A brief summary of some of the major characters appearing in the story of Stilicho.

  Alaric (c.370–410): Leader of a large group of warriors, mainly Goths, from their revolt against Roman rule in 395 until his death in 410. The main opponent of Stilicho, he was an able politician and general. Led the Goths in their sack of Rome in 410.

  Ambrose (c.340–397): Bishop of Milan, now a saint. Came to the bishopric unwillingly, but was then steadfast in his support of Catholicism. When in 390 Theodosius I ordered a massacre in Thessalonica, Ambrose excommunicated him and forced the emperor to serve several months of penance before allowing him to return to the fold. Following Theodosius’ death in 395 Ambrose supported Stilicho until his own death in 397.

  Anthemius (praefectus praetorio Orientis 405–414): From his appointment in 405 Anthemius was the leader of a political coalition that guided the East through the minority of Theodosius II. He refused to accept Stilicho as parens principum from 405 until Stilicho’s death in 408.

  Arbogast (d.394): A Frank, he was placed in charge of Valentinian II in 388. His refusal to accept the young emperor’s orders may have resulted in Valentinian committing suicide in 392. Arbogast then promoted Eugenius as the new emperor in the West. Theodosius refused to accept this and in 394 led an army into Italy. At the hard-fought Battle of the Frigidus Theodosius was victorious and Arbogast fled before committing suicide.

  Arcadius (emperor 383–408): Weak-willed, his court was dominated by a succession of strong individuals until the rise of Anthemius, after which Anthemius and his allies dominated the East and stabilized the situation until Arcadius’ death in 408.

  Aurelian (praefectus praetorio Orientis 399 and 414–416): He was consul alongside Stilicho in 400, but was arrested and exiled under Gainas. After the fall of Gainas he returned and remained a powerful political figure until late in his life.

  Claudian (Claudian Claudianus (died c.404)): Was an Egyptian poet. Under the patronage of Stilicho he wrote, amongst others, panegyrics both for Stilicho and the Emperor Honorius (see Introduction for more information).

  Constantine III (d.411): Declared emperor in Britain in 407, he crossed the English Channel and took control of Gaul and Spain. Although at first opposed by Honorius, when Alaric invaded Italy Honorius recognized him as co-emperor. Due to political intrigues at his own court, in Spain and in Italy, Constantine led an abortive invasion of Italy before retreating and being besieged in Arles by his own rebel general Gerontius. Finally Constantius, the new magister militum in Italy, drove off Gerontius and himself laid siege to Constantine. He eventually surrendered and was executed in 411.

  Eucherius (c.388–408): The son of Stilicho, he was betrothed to Galla Placidia but they never married. He was killed in Rome in 408.

  Eudoxia (Augusta 400–404): Daughter of the Frank Bauto, she married the Emperor Arcadius in 395 as arranged by Eutropius. She was declared Augusta in Constantinople in 400, to the disgust of the West, and died in 404.

  Eugenius (Augustus 392–394): A teacher of Latin Grammar and Rhetoric, he was raised to the purple by Arbogast following the ‘suicide’ of Valentinian II. Defeated at the Battle of the Frigidus, he was then executed.

  Eutropius (praepositus sacri cubiculum 395–9): A eunuc
h, he was praepositus sacri cubiculum in Constantinople. He was the great rival of Rufinus. He arranged the marriage of Eudoxia to Arcadius to thwart Rufinus’ plans, and then took both Rufinus’ power and wealth when Rufinus was killed by the troops in 395. Instigated the declaration of Stilicho as hostis publicus to safeguard his own position. Led a military expedition against the Huns but then alienated the court by assuming the consulship for 399, which was never accepted in the West. Overthrown by Gainas following the political intrigues of Tribigild. He was exiled before being recalled and executed for treason.

  Eutychianus (praefectus praetorio Orientis 397–399, 399–400 and 404–405): After the fall of Rufinus in 397 he was the praefectus praetorio Orientis until 399, being consul in 398. With the fall of Eutropius in 399 he was replaced before being reinstated following the coup of Gainas. With the fall of Gainas he was once again replaced before being restored for a brief period in 404–405, after which the domination of Anthemius ensured he made no further returns to power.

  Flavia Galla (second wife of Theodosius I, 387–394): Daughter of Valentinian I, sister of Valentinian II, and mother of Galla Placidia, she married Theodosius as part of the political arrangements for Theodosius’ support for her brother against Magnus Maximus. Died in childbirth in 394.

  Fravitta (d.404): A Goth, leader of the pro-Roman party of the Goths settled by Theodosius in 382. Killed Eriulph, leader of the anti-Roman faction, prior to Theodosius’ campaign against Eugenius, after which he served Theodosius and then Arcadius. Appointed magister militum in 400 to quell the revolt of Gainas, his success earned him the consulship in 401. A supporter of Stilicho and the unity of the Empire, he was executed after accusing John of sowing dissension between East and West.

  Gainas (d.400): A Goth, he was given joint-command of the federate troops during Theodosius’ campaign against Eugenius in 394. After Theodosius’ death he assumed command of the Eastern troops serving under Stilicho before leading his men back to Constantinople. Probably responsible for the death of Rufinus at the hands of the troops on their return. Angered by not receiving high honours under Rufinus’ successor Eutropius, took advantage of Tribigild’s revolt to oust Eutropius from power before assuming command himself. Unfortunately, he was not up to the task. Realizing he was under threat, he left Constantinople but many of his men were massacred by the inhabitants as they attempted to join him. He attempted to cross to Asia Minor, being stopped by Fravitta, before crossing the Danube. Once across he was defeated and killed by the Hun Uldin.