The Rise of Female Kings in Europe, 1300-1800
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4. For Spanish views of these events, see C.V. Malfatti, The Accession, Coronation and Marriage of Mary Tudor as Related in Four Manuscripts of the Escorial (Barcelona, 1956); for their wedding, Alexander Samson, “Changing Places: The Marriage and Royal Entry of Philip, Prince of Austria, and Mary Tudor, July-August 1554,” in Sixteenth Century Journal, 36 (2005), 761–84. Their great seal of 1554 is reproduced in Richards, Mary Tudor, plate 9, and their ‘floating-crown’ joint coinage in Monter, “Gendered Sovereignty,” 549; David Loades prints her last will in Mary Tudor: A Life (London, 1989), 370–83.
5. Geoffrey Parker's superb Felipe II: La biografía definitiva (Barcelona, 2010), 120–35, 140–54, does much to clarify Philip's role in his wife's kingdom; quote from 129.
6. Richards, Mary Tudor, 215–16.
7. Loades, Tragical History, 203; Claude Richardot, Trois sermons funèbres (Antwerp, 1559), 20, 23–23v.
8. Bernard Berdou d'Aas, Jeanne III d'Albret: Chronique (1528–1572) (Anglet, 2002), 195–204; on her coins, see François Voisin, “Les testons de Jeanne d'Albret,” Cahiers Numismatiques #131 (1997), 38–47.
9. Berdou d'Aas, Chronique, 257, 262 n. 36, 298–99, 314.
10. Philippe Chareyre, “'Hasta la Muerte’: La ‘fermesse’ de Jeanne d'Albret,” in Jeanne d'Albret et sa cour (Paris, 2004), 82–84.
11. Pamela Ritchie, Mary of Guise in Scotland, 1548–1560: A Political Career (East Linton, 2002), 94–95.
12. See bibliographical essay; Thierry Wanegffelen, Le pouvoir contesté: souveraines d'Europe à la Renaissance (Paris, 2008), 277–8.
13. See Monter, “Gendered Sovereignty,” 548–50; the counterfeits include over 350 from one location: N. M. McQ. Holmes, Scottish Coins in the National Museums of Scotland, Edinburgh: Part I, 1526–1603 (Oxford, 2006), 4, 8, 23–25.
14.
15. Julian Goodare, “The First Parliament of Mary Queen of Scots,” Sixteenth Century Journal 36 (2005), 55–75.
16. Katharine Anthony, Queen Elizabeth (New York, 1929), 105.
17. Judith Richards, “Examples and Admonitions: What Mary Demonstrated for Elizabeth,” in Hunt and Whitelock, Tudor Queenship, 31–45; Leah Marcus, Janel Mueller, and Mary Beth Rose, eds., Elizabeth I: Collected Works (Chicago, 2000), 52 n. 3; Carol Levin, "The Heart and Stomach of a King”: Elizabeth I and the Politics of Sex and Power (Philadelphia, 1994), 121–26; also Jacqueline Broad and Karen Green, A History of Women's Political Thought in Europe, 1400–1700 (Cambridge, 2009), 90–109. Her seal of 1584 is reproduced in Louis Montrose, The Subject of Elizabeth (Chicago, 2006), 96 (fig. 28).
18. Compare Cottret, Elisabeth, 101–2, with Camden's summary of the same problem in 1581 (MacCaffrey, History, 136–37). Also Frederick Chamberlin, Sayings of Queen Elizabeth (London, 1923), 16; Marcus et al., Collected Works, 79 (draft version reproduced on 78).
19. William Camden, Annales … of the Reign of Elizabeth (London, 1630), 56.
20. Chamberlin, Sayings, 310.
21. Marcus et al., Collected Works, 135–43 (quote, 141).
22. English version in ibid., 157; Spanish original in Janel Mueller and Leah Marcus, eds., Elizabeth I: Autograph Compositions and Foreign Language Originals (Chicago, 2003); Marcus et al., Collected Works, 311–21. Its frontispiece is reproduced in Linda Shenk, Learned Queen: The Image of Elizabeth I in Politics and Poetry (New York, 2010), 25.
23. Five early English translations of her outburst of 1597 exist: Marcus et al., Collected Works, 332–33 n. 1; her final harangue in Calendar of State Papers, Venice, 9:533 (#1134).
24. William Camden, The True and Royall History of the famus empresse Elizabeth, Queen of England, France and Ireland (London, 1625), 308–9; Cottret, Elisabeth, 229.
25. J. E. Neale, Elizabeth I (London, 1934), 179; Madeleine Lazard, “L'image d'Elizabeth d'Angleterre chez Brantôme,” in Françoise Argod-Dutard and Anne-Marie Cocula, eds., Brantôme et les Grands d'Europe (Bordeaux, 2003), 99–110.
26. Meryl Bailey, “Salvatrix Mundi: Queen Elizabeth I as Christ-Type,” Studies in Iconography 29 (2008), 176–215; Calendar of State Papers, Venice, 8:344–45, 379 (#640, 642, 717); Roy Strong, Gloriana (London, 2003), 22; Neale, Elizabeth, 393; Ruth Betegón Diez, Isabel Clara Eugenia: Infanta de España y soberana de Flandes (Barcelona, 2004), 137.
27. Strong, Gloriana, 22–23, 41 (quote).
28. Ibid., 20 (quote), 111 (#109); Camden, History, 328 (dux foemina fecit). For Dutch celebrations of the Armada defeat, see Edward Hawkins, Medallic Illustrations of the History of Great Britain and Ireland, to the Death of George II, 2 vols. (London, 1885), 1:145–48 (#111–18), 153 (#127, 128).
29. Montrose, Subject of Elizabeth, 249.
30. See bibliographical essay. After 1966 two smaller congresses about her have been held at Rome (1989 and 1996), where she spent most of her last thirty years, and one at Stockholm (1995).
31. Curt Weibull, Christina of Sweden (Stockholm, 1966), 77–78.
32. Ibid., 82–84, 88.
33. Faculty of Medicine, Montpellier, Ms. H 258, vol. 12 (Miscellanea Politica), fols. 28 (il n'y avoit pas un homme en tout la Suède qui eust si hardi que d'en parler à la Reine), 222v.
34. Kari Elisabeth Børresen, “Christina's Discourse on God and Humanity,” in Marie-Louise Roden, ed., Politics and Culture in the Age of Christina (Stockholm, 1997), 46 nn. 24, 25; Baron Carl de Bildt, Les Médailles romaines de Christine de Suède (Rome, 1908), 23–32, includes 14 reproductions.
35. Veronica Buckley, Christina, Queen of Sweden: The Restless Life of a European Eccentric (London, 2004), 197–98, 148, 140, 164; Cavalli-Björkman, “Christina Portraits,” in Roden, Politics and Culture, 96–102. Bernard Quilliet, Christine de Suède (Paris, 2005), 109–46, maintains that she was a hermaphrodite.
36. Montpellier manuscripts, vol. 10 (Miscellanea di suo pugno), fol. 232 (La Regina non dice ne fa niente a caso: a close variant on fol. 238); Michael Roberts, Sweden as a Great Power 1611–1697 (London, 1968), 49–55. Her Polish candidacy generated 267 letters, preserved at Montpellier, of which J. Arckenholz published the most important: Waclaw Uruszczak, Polonica w korespondencji królowej szwedzkiej Krystyny w zbiorach Bibliothèque Interuniversitaire w Montpellier (Cracow, 2001).
37. Bildt, Médailles, 137–45.
38. Jean-François de Raymond, ed., Christine, reine de Suède, Apologies (Paris, 1994), 135, 357 (Sentiments, #339).
39. Swedish National Library, Stockholm, Ms. D 684, vol. 1 (marginal note in Sentiments laconiques); Iiro Kajanto, Christina Heroina: Mythological and Historical Exemplification in the Latin Panegyrics on Christina Queen of Sweden (Helsinki, 1993), 134–37; Buckley, Christina, 55.
40. Ludwig Lindenburg, Leben und Schriften David Fassmanns 1683–1744, mit besonderer Berücksichtigung seiner Totengesprache (Berlin, 1937), 88–141, esp. 103–7, 128. Fassmann wrote over 150 such dialogues by 1739.
41. Charles Beem, The Lioness Roared (London, 2006), 181 n. 5 and 219 nn. 6, 7.
42. Richard Doebner, ed., Memoirs of Mary, Queen of England (Leipzig, 1896), 10–12.
43. Ibid., 22–23, 32–33, 58–59; Rachel Weil, Political Passions: Gender, the Family, and Political Argument in England, 1680–1714 (Manchester, 1999), 109.
44. Gregorio Leti, Vita d'Elisabetta, Regina d'Inghilterra, detta per Sopranome la Comediante Politica, 2 vols. (Amsterdam, 1693), 1:3–5. By 1750 this work had eleven editions in French, five in Dutch, and two in German; the Russian translation of 1795 is in the Library of Congress: Nati Krivatsy, Bibliography of the Works of Gregorio Leti (New Castle, Del., 1982), 7, 39–44.
Chapter 6. Husbands Subordinated
1. Monter, “Gendered Sovereignty,” 553–59; on Maria Theresa's remarkably complicated numismatic legacy, see Tassilo Eypeltauer, Corpus Nummorum Regni Maria Ther
esiae: Die Münzprägungen der Kaiserin Maria Theresia und ihre Mitregenten Kaiser Franz I und Josef II (Basel, 1973),
2. Edward Gregg, Queen Anne, 2d ed. (New Haven, 2001), 6, 152–53.
3. See Charles Beem's sympathetic portrait in The Lioness Roared (London, 2006), 101–39, and Rachel Weil, Political Passions: Gender, the Family, and Political Argument in England, 1680–1714 (Manchester, 1999), 162–86. Prince George appears on only two of the seventy-five medals from his wife's reign held in the American Numismatic Society (ANS), one because of his death in 1708; in this respect, he resembles his sister-in-law, Mary II.
4. Frances Harris, A Passion for Government: The Life of Sarah, Duchess of Marlborough (Oxford, 1991). Weil (Political Passions, 189) argues that “gender did not matter to Sarah Churchill's construction of herself as a political actor.”
5. Gregg, Queen Anne, 53–58, 295, 297, 365. Manley's Selected Works (London, 1986) fill five volumes.
6. Gregg, Queen Anne, 82, 160–62, 330.
7. Ibid., 351. Among seventy-five different designs of medals from Anne's reign in the ANS, the phrase Louis Magnus, Anna Maior also appears on #0000.999. 3176 and 3177.
8. Gregg, Queen Anne, 143–44, 147–48, 212–13.
9. Karin Tegenborg Falkdaen, Kungne ar en kvinna (Umea, 2003), 207–11 (English summary).
10. English translation of the original document of 1713 in C. A. Macartney, ed., The Habsburg and Hohenzollern Dynasties in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries (New York, 1970), 88–91 (quote, 90); see also Karl A. Roider, “The Pragmatic Sanction,” Austrian History Yearbook 8 (1972), 153–58.
11. Gustav Turba, ed., Die Pragmatische Sanktion (Vienna, 1913), 54–121, esp. 114 (quote from Macartney, Habsburg and Hohenzollern Dynasties, 40).
12. Turba, Die Pragmatische Sanktion, 138–84, 191–94; Macartney, Habsburg and Hohenzollern Dynasties, 86–87, 91–94. An ornately sealed copy, signed by the emperor and major Hungarian dignitaries, exists in Hungary's National Museum.
13. Zufallige Gedanken über die Frage: Ob Ihre Majestät, die Königin von Ungarn and Böhmen, wegen der Churwürde, so der Krone Böhmen anklebet, in dem Churfürstlichen Collegio, da nun die Erb-Folge auf das Weibliche Geschlecht verfallen, Sitz und Stimme führen können? (n.p. [Vienna], 1741).
14. See bibliographical essay; Karl Vocelka, Glanz und Untergang der Höfischen Welt: Repräsentation, Reform und Reaktion in Habsburgischen Vielvölkerstaat (Vienna, 2001), 28–33. During her reign, Hungarian Protestants lost about two hundred churches and schools. She began to expel the large Jewish community of Prague early in her reign but changed her mind at the last minute—and had a medal struck to celebrate her clemency.
15. Michael Yonan, “Modesty and Monarchy: Rethinking Empress Maria Theresa at Schönbrunn,” Austrian History Yearbook 35 (2004), 25–47.
16. J. Kallbrunner, ed., Maria Theresias Politisches Testament (Vienna, 1952). Macartney's English translation (Habsburg and Hohenzollern Dynasties, 96–132) omits the second and slightly later version, which is less repetitive but also less personal (quote, 97).
17. Macartney, Habsburg and Hohenzollern Dynasties, 99–100, 102. Her antagonist Frederick the Great criticized himself for using faulty military tactics in his Silesian campaign of 1741: Frédéric II, Mémoires, ed. Boutaric and Campardon, 2 vols. (Paris, 1866), 1:93–95.
18. Frederick II, Oeuvres, 31 vols. (Berlin, 1846–57), 16:41; Frédéric II, Mémoires, 1:4. Writing for posterity, he used tactful language even about the meddlesome queen-consort of Spain, Elizabeth Farnese, who “would have wished to govern the whole world” and “marched boldly toward the fulfillment of her projects; nothing surprised her, and nothing stopped her” (ibid., 25–26).
19. R. J. W. Evans, “Maria Theresa and Hungary,” in Austria, Hungary and the Habsburgs: Essays on Central Europe, c. 1683–1867 (Oxford, 2006), 17–35; quote from von Arneth, Geschichte Maria Theresiens, 10:128.
20. Schau- und Denkmünzen, welche unter der glorwürdigen Regierung des Kaiserinn Königinn Maria Thersia geprägt worden sind (Vienna, 1782), #23. The painting, done by Sir Philip Hamilton about 1750, was shown at the exhibition Maria Theresa als Konigin von Ungarn (1980) and reproduced in its catalogue; Astrik Gabriel, Les rapports dynastiques franco-hongrois au moyen-age (Budapest, 1949), 62.
21. Olga Khayanova, “From the Theresianum in Vienna to the Theresian Academy in Buda: An Interrupted Reform of Noble Education, 1740s–1780s,” in Klara Papp and Janos Barta, eds., The First Millennium of Hungary in Europe (Debreczen, 2002), 264–68.
22. Fullest description, with illustrations, in Gerda Mraz and Gottfried Mraz, Maria Theresia. Ihr Leben und ihre Zeit in Bildern und Dokumenten (Munich, 1979), 172–74.
23. Macartney, Habsburg and Hohenzollern Dynasties, 115.
24. Prague's Strahov Library contains no fewer than ten congratulatory tracts about her coronation in Latin and German, including the official Actus coronationis and a German version of her Triumpherter Einzug two weeks earlier.
25. Mraz and Mraz, Bildern und Dokumenten, 88 (dass sie moglicherweise diese Krönung geringer einschätze als die beiden männlicher Kronen, die sie trage: 22/8/1745); Eypeltauer, Corpus Nummorum, 28, 111–18, 205–07, 251–53, 339–44. After her husband's death, Maria Theresa's mints issued more than twice as many different types of thaler with her name than with that of her son and co-regent, Emperor Josef II.
26. Eypeltauer, Corpus Nummorum, 231, 13.
27. Emile Karafiol, “The Reforms of the Empress Maria Theresa in the Provincial Government of Lower Austria, 1740–1765” (Ph.D. diss., Cornell University, 1965), 240, 246–47, 252.
28. Vocelka, Glanz, 304–6.
29. Her first child died in infancy; three others, including her most talented son, Karl, died between the ages of twelve and sixteen.
30. On her Russian alliance, see the illustrated pamphlet by Emil Jettel-Ettenach, Der Damenkrieg: ein historisches Bilderbuch (Vienna, 1924); Georg Ludwigstorff, “Die Geschichte des Maria-Theresien-Ordens bis zum Ende des 18. Jahrh.,” in H. Dikowitsch, ed., Barock–Blütezeit der europäischen Ritterorden (St. Polten, 2000), 27–34.
31. Christian Steeb, “Kaiser Franz I. und seine ablehende Haltung gegenüber der Stiftung des königlich ungarischen St.-Stephans-Ordens,” in Dikowitsch, Barock, 35–40. Maria Theresa could be very cavalier about such honors; once, because “I don't know anyone who hasn't already got some honorary title,” she made the fourteen-year-old granddaughter of her chief minister a knight of the Order of Malta (ibid., 63–66).
32. Alfred Ritter von Arneth, ed., Maria Theresia und Joseph II; Ihre Correspondenz, 3 vols. (Vienna, 1867–68), 3:277 (Ne perdez jamais de vue: besser ein mittelmässiger Frieden als glücklicher Krieg).
33. Michael Yonan, “Conceptualizing the Kaiserinwitwe: Empress Maria Theresa and Her Portraits,” in Allison Levy, ed., Widowhood and Visual Culture in Early Modern Europe (Aldershot, 2003), 109–24.
34. The most important study remains Caetano Beirão, D. Maria I 1777–1792, 4th ed. (Lisbon, 1944).
35. Jenifer Roberts, The Madness of Queen Maria (Chippenham, 2009), 5–54; Maria do Ceu de Brito Vairinho Borrecho, “D. Maria I.: a formaçao de uma rainha” (thesis, Universidade Nova da Lisboa, 1993), esp. 9, 39–45.
36. Portugal's National Library contains thirty-two titles mentioning her in 1777 and twenty-four from the next three years. Fewer than ten of the first group came from official royal presses, which printed most of those from 1778–80.
37. Roberts, Madness of Queen Maria, 57–61; Do Ceu de Brito, appendix VI; AUTO / do Levanatameno e juramento / que os grandes, titulos seculars, ecclesiasticos, e mais pessoas, que se acharão presentes, / fizerão á Muito Alta, Muito Poderosa / Rainha Fidelissima / a senhora / D. Maria I. / Nosssa Senhora / na coroa destes reinos, e senhorios de Portugal, / sendo exaltada, e coroada sobre o regio / throno juntamente com o senhor Rei / D. Pedro III. / na tarde do dia treze de maio, anno de 1777 (Lisbon, 1780), 5 (quote). A graphic portrayal of her husband's political posi
tion is provided by a contemporary joint portrait; see
38. Roberts, Madness of Queen Maria, 64–69, 86, 111; on her letters, see Beiraõ, D. Maria I, 437–47.
39. Roberts, Madness of Queen Maria, 113–35.
Chapter 7. Ruling Without Inheriting
1. Anisimov's collective biography, published in 1997, is available in English as Five Empresses: Court Life in Eighteenth-Century Russia (London, 2004). See the critical survey of recent Russian historians of this era (most prominently, Anisimov) by M. Mouravieva, “Figures denigrées,” in Isabelle Poutrin and Marie-Karine Schaub, eds., Femmes et pouvoir politique: Les princesses d'Europe, XVe–XVIIIe siècles (Rosny, 2007), 312–25. For an overview from a different perspective, see John T. Alexander, “Favorites, Favoritism and Female Rule in Russia, 1725–1796,” in Roger Bartlett and Janet Hartley, eds., Russia in the Age of Enlightenment: Essays for Isabel de Madariaga (London, 1990), 106–24.
2. Miram Yalom, Birth of the Chess Queen (New York, 2004), 182–87.
3. Lindsay Hughes, Sophia, Regent of Russia 1657–1704 (New Haven, 1990), 69–70, 174.
4. Ibid., 139–45. An engraving at Amsterdam replaced the eagle with allegorical feminine virtues and translated her bombastic eulogy into Latin.
5. J. Korb, Diary of an Austrian Secretary of Legation at the Court of Czar Peter the Great, 2 vols. (London, 1863), 2:92 (first printed in Latin [Vienna, 1700]).
6. Gary Marker, “Godly and Pagan Women in the Coronation Sermon of 1724,” in Roger Bartlett and Gabriela Lehmann-Carli, eds., Eighteenth-Century Russia: Society, Culture, Economy (Berlin, 2007), 207, 210, 219; and Marker, “Sacralizing Female Rule, 1725–1761,” in W. Rosslyn and A. Tosi, eds., Women in Russian Culture and Society 1700–1825 (New York, 2007), 171–90.
7. [David Fassmann], Gespräche im Raum der Todte (129h entrevue, Band IX) zwischen der Russische Kaiserin CATHARINA und der weltberühmten Orientalischer Königin ZENOBIA (Leipzig, 1729), 10–11, 13–14, 35–40, 43–45.