On the Trail of Genghis Khan

by Tim Cope

  Ogodei Khan Third son of Genghis Khan; ascended to the throne of the grand khan of the Mongol Empire in 1229, oversaw Mongol expansion into Europe. When news of Ogodei’s death in 1241 reached the Mongol armies, the Mongols withdrew and retreated east to elect a new leader.

  Subodei Genghis Khan’s chief military strategist and commander. After the death of Genghis, Subodei oversaw Mongol expansion into Russia and eastern Europe and was later assigned to lead campaigns against the Song Dynasty in China. Regarded as one of the greatest military minds in history, he died in 1248 in Mongolia at the age of seventy-two. His name is transliterated more correctly from Mongolian as Subatai.

  OTHER IMPORTANT FIGURES OF STEPPE HISTORY MENTIONED IN THIS BOOK

  Alim Khan Emir of Bukhara from 1911 until 1920, when he was deposed by the Soviet army and forced to flee to exile in Afghanistan, where he died in 1944. Thought to be the last direct descendant of Genghis Khan to hold sway as a national ruler.

  Arpád Nomad leader of the Magyars (Hungarians) from 895 to 907. Under his rule, the Magyars settled the Carpathian Basin and laid the foundations of the nation of Hungary.

  Bela IV Ruler of Hungary at the time of the 1241 Mongol invasion of eastern Europe; escaped and returned to successfully govern Hungary after the retreat of the Mongols to Asia.

  Hajji Giray Descendant of Batu Khan’s brother; founded the Crimean khanate sometime around 1430. The Giray dynasty survived until annexation of Crimea to Russia in the late eighteenth century.

  Inalchuk Governor of the town of Otrar on the Syr Darya River during the reign of Muhammad II and the Khwarezm Empire. He enraged Genghis Khan by executing a 450-man merchant caravan sent from Mongolia to Otrar in 1218. Otrar was the first city to be crushed by the Mongol campaign against Khwarezm in 1219–1220. Inalchuk was put to death by molten silver poured in the eyes and ears.

  Kotian Khan of the nomadic Kipchaks (also known as Cumans) at the time of the Mongol invasion of Russia and Europe. During the initial Mongol raid in 1223, Kotian sought military alliances with several princedoms of Kievan Rus but was nevertheless heavily defeated during a battle on the Little Kalka River. In 1238 when the Mongols returned, the Kipchaks were again defeated, and Kotian, together with 40,000 nomad families sought refuge in Hungary. It was on the pretext of King Bela IV of Hungary harboring these Kipchaks that the Mongols invaded Hungary in 1241.

  Muhammad II Sultan of the Khwarezm Empire, the territory of which stretched across Transoxiana, roughly including the modern states of Iran, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and parts of Kazakhstan, Tadjikistan, Afghanistan, and Pakistan. Khwarezm was crushed by Genghis Khan’s army in 1219–1220. Muhummad fled to an islet on the Caspian coast but died of pneumonia in the winter of 1220–1221.

  Sahin Giray Last khan of the Crimean khanate.

  Tamerlane Turkic ruler from Central Asia who attempted to evoke the legacy of Genghis Khan in the second half of the fourteenth century; restored rule over much of the territory Mongols had conquered earlier. Also known as Timur and “Timur the Lame,” Tamerlane died in 1405.

  Tayang Khan Leader of the Naimans, who were defeated by Genghis Khan’s army in 1204. Also known as “Taibuqa,” he was mortally wounded in this battle.

  Ubashi Khan Eighteenth-century khan of the Kalmyks; led the disastrous exodus of Kalmyks from the Caspian Steppe back to China and Mongolia in 1771.

  Yanibeg Khan Distant descendant of Jochi; ruled the Golden Horde from 1341 to 1357.

  IMPORTANT STEPPE PEOPLES

  Borjigin Clan that was part of the Mongol tribe that inhabited the steppe and forests of northern Mongolia between the Onon and Kherlen Rivers; the clan of Genghis Khan.

  Botai An ancient steppe people of what is northern Kazakhstan today (Akmola Oblast); credited with being the first culture to domesticate the wild horse, c. 3700–3100 BCE.

  Huns Renowned horseback warriors who appeared on the Russian steppe and the Hungarian plain in the fourth century CE and in the fifth century, under the rule of Attila the Hun, threatened the Roman Empire, Persia, and much of Europe with their invasions.

  Kalmyks Descendants of Oirat Mongols who migrated to the Caspian steppe in the early part of the seventeenth century and formed the Kalmyk Khanate.

  Khoton A small Mongolian minority, most of whom live a traditional nomad life in the Kharkhiraa-Turgen mountain region of Western Mongolia.

  Kipchaks Powerful Turkic people of the steppe who at times held sway from Siberia and Central Asia to the Balkans. The Mongols defeated the Kipchaks during their westward expansion into Europe, and 40,000 Kipchak families fled to Hungary for refuge. The Golden Horde is also referred to as the Kipchak Khanate. Kipchaks are known as “Cumans” in Latin, and “Polovtsy” in Russian. Note I have used the term Cumans in the Hungarian chapter, for this is how they were known to Europeans.

  Magyars Nomadic people believed to originate from somewhere in the vicinity of Bashkiria (also known as Bashkortostan) near the southern Urals of Russia; conquered the Carpathian Basin in the end of the ninth century and, under the leadership of Arpád, founded the nation of Hungary in 896.

  Mamluks Powerful military caste of medieval Egypt who seized the sultanate of Egypt and Syria and dealt the Mongol some of its first major defeats. The Mamluks were primarily of Kipchak origin—nomads of the steppe with a wealth of experience in the tactics of Mongol warfare who had been traded to Egypt as slaves.

  Naimans Turkic tribe of western Mongolia; one of the most powerful tribes on the Mongolian steppe at the end of the twelfth century at the time of Genghis Khan’s rise. The Naimans and the Keraits alike were Nestorian Christians. After their 1204 defeat by Genghis Khan’s army, the Naimans fled west into what are now the steppes of Kazakhstan, where, under their leader Kuchlug (the son of Tayang Khan), they struck alliance with the Kara-Khitans. The Naimans were again defeated by the Mongols during the conquest of Khwarezm. Today there are around 400,000 Naimans in Kazakhstan, mostly in the east. They are part of the Orta Juz (Middle Horde) confederation of tribes. I met with Naiman nomads migrating to the Betpak Dala from the river Chu.

  Nogais Descendants of Mongol and Turkic tribes who rose to power on the Caspian Steppe in the wake of the collapse of the Golden Horde. Nogais were allied with the Crimean Khanate, and many migrated to Crimea, where they served as cavalry for the Crimean Khan (in fact Crimean Tatars who resided on the steppe of Crimea are known as Nogais). The Kalmyks displaced the Nogais from the Caspian steppe in the first half of the seventeenth century. Nogais today reside mostly in the northern Caucausus, Crimea, and Turkey. There is also a tribe of Nogais who are part of the Kishi Juz (Junior Horde) of Kazakhs.

  Oirat Mongols A confederation of the Choros, Durvud, Torghut, and Khoshut tribes of western Mongolia, believed to have originated from the forests of southern Siberia; fought fiercely against Genghis Khan and later formed their own empire, Zhungaria. As the power of Zhungaria waned in the early part of the seventeenth century, some tribes migrated west to the Caspian Steppe, where they founded the Khanate of Kalmykia and became known as Kalmyks. In 1771, the Kalmyks made a tragic exodus back to Asia during which many died en route through the Kazakh steppes. The Zhungarian Empire was vanquished by the Qing Dynasty between 1755 and 1757. Today, Oirats primarily reside in western Mongolia and China, and in the republic of Kalmykia (Russia).

  Scythians Diverse group of sophisticated nomadic and seminomadic cultures stretching from Hungary to the Altai Mountains from around the seventh to the fourth century BCE. Their war tactics of feigned retreat and skill as mounted archers—described by Herodotus—bear a striking similarity with the Mongols. The Scythians were renowned for their gold art and the elaborate burial mounds known as kurgans, still found widely on the steppe.

  Xiongnu Nomadic people of Inner Asia who ruled an empire in greater Mongolia during the Iron Age from the third to the first century BCE. Although the origin of the Xiongnu is subject to ongoing controversy and debate, many historians believe they were the original Hunnic peop
le, whose descendants charged into Europe centuries later under the helm of Attilla.

  CRIMEAN TATAR TRIBES

  Nogais Tatars who were primarily pastoral nomads on the steppe of Crimea.

  Tatas Tatars who inhabited the forested mountains of Crimea, renowned for their European features.

  Yaliboyu Crimean Tatars who lived as traders and fishermen on the coast of Crimea.

  KAZAKH JUZES (HORDES)

  Kishi Juz (Junior Horde) Confederation of tribes in the arid deserts of western Kazakhstan between the Aral Sea and Caspian Sea.

  Orta Juz (Middle Horde) Confederation of tribes in the north, center, and east of Kazakhstan, and many of the Kazakhs of Xinjiang province in China.

  Ula Juz (Elder Horde) Confederation of tribes in the Jeti-Su region in southeast Kazakhstan.

  THE MONGOL KHANATES

  Chaghatai Khanate Founded by Chaghatai, Genghis Khan’s second son, and ruled by his descendants; extended from the Amu Darya to the Altai Mountains.

  Golden Horde Khanate composed of territories of what is nowadays Kazakhstan, Russia, Ukraine, and the Caucasus, ruled initially by Jochi Khan but expanded to its zenith under his son, Batu Khan.

  Ilkhanate Khanate primarily comprising territories of Persia, founded by Hulegu Khan (Genghis Khan’s grandson) and ruled by his descendants until the mid-fourteenth century.

  Yuan Dynasty Khanate that included approximate territories of modern China, Mongolia, and Korea; ruled by Khubilai Khan from 1260 to 1294.

  Select Bibliography

  NONFICTION

  Allworth, Edward A. The Tatars of Crimea: Return to the Homeland. Durham, NC: Duke University Press Books, 1998.

  Burnaby, Frederick. A Ride to Khiva: Travels and Adventures in Central Asia. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002.

  Carpini, Giovanni di Plan. The Story of the Mongols Whom We Call the Tartars. Wellesley, MA: Branden Books, 1996.

  Conquest, Robert. The Harvest of Sorrow: Soviet Collectivization and the Terror-Famine. New York: Oxford University Press, 1987.

  Dave, Bhavna. Kazakhstan: Ethnicity, Language and Power. London: Routledge, 2007.

  Dolot, Miron. Execution by Hunger: The Hidden Holocaust. New York: W. W. Norton, 1987.

  Gray, John. Kazakhstan: A Review of Farm Restructuring. Herndon, VA: World Bank Publications, 2000.

  Halperin, Charles J. Russia and the Golden Horde: The Mongol Impact on Medieval Russian History. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1985.

  Hartog, Leo De. Genghis Khan, Conqueror of the World. Folio Edition. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005.

  Haslund, Henning. Mongolian Adventure: 1920s Danger and Escape Among the Mounted Nomads of Central Asia. Zurich: Long Riders Guild Press, 2001.

  Hildinger, Erik. Warriors of the Steppe: A Military History of Central Asia 500 BC to 1700 AD. New York: Da Capo Press, 2001.

  Hopkirk, Peter. Foreign Devils on the Silk Road. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1980.

  ———. The Great Game: The Struggle for Empire in Central Asia. New York: Kodansha International, 1992.

  Jankovich, Miklos. They Rode into Europe: The Fruitful Exchange in the Arts of Horsemanship Between East and West. Zurich: Long Riders Guild Press, 2007.

  Khodarkovsky, Michael. Where Two Worlds Met: The Russian State and the Kalmyk Nomads 1600–1771. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2006.

  Kleveman, Lutz. The New Great Game: Blood and Oil in Central Asia. London: Atlantic Books, 2004.

  Maclean, Fitzroy. Eastern Approaches. London: Penguin Books, 1991.

  Manz, Beatrice Forbes. Tamerlane: His Rise and Rule. Folio ed. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005.

  Martin, Virginia. Law and Custom in the Steppe: The Kazakhs of the Middle Horde and Russian Colonialism in the Nineteenth Century. Richmond, Surrey, UK: Rout-ledge, 2001.

  Rink, Bjarke. The Centaur Legacy: How Equine Speed and Human Intelligence Shaped the Course of History. Zurich: Long Riders Guild Press, 2004.

  Rockhill, W. W. The Journey of William of Rubruck to the Eastern Parts of the World, 1253–55. Asian Educational Services, 1998.

  Ronay, Gabriel. The Tartar Khan’s Englishman. London: Cassell, 1978.

  Rossabi, Morris. Khubilai Khan: His Life and Times. Folio ed. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005.

  Shayakhmetov, Mukhamet. The Silent Steppe: The Memoir of a Kazakh Nomad Under Stalin. New York: Overlook/Rookery, 2007.

  Uehling, Greta Lynn. Beyond Memory: The Crimean Tatars’ Deportation and Return. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004.

  Weatherford, Jack. Genghis Khan and the Making of the Modern World. New York: Three Rivers Press, 2004.

  FICTION

  Rong, Jiang. Wolf Totem. London: Penguin Books, 2009.

  Stanislaw, Vincenz, On the High Uplands: Sagas, Songs, Tales and Legends of the Carpathians. Roy Publishers, 1955.

  Tolstoy, Leo. The Cossacks and Other Stories. London: Penguin Classics, 2007.

  EQUESTRIAN TRAVEL RESOURCES

  For anyone interested in the practical side of equestrian travel, I recommend consulting the Long Riders Guild at www.thelongridersguild.com.

  A comprehensive list of historical equestrian adventure and practical guides to horse packing can also be found at www.horsetravelbooks.com.

  A full list of my personal equipment can be found on my website, www.timcopejourneys.com

  Notes

  CHAPTER 1: MONGOLIAN DREAMING

  1 This is only an approximate distance that I traveled, which is not to say that it is 10,000 km as the crow flies from Mongolia to the Danube River in Hungary.

  2 In time sedentary society would also adopt the horse and use it to great advantage, but for those early earth-tillers who suffered the wrath of raiding nomad hordes, there is no doubt that the horse was an inseparable symbol of the devastation of war. It is surely no coincidence that in the New Testament it is horses that carry the four beasts of the apocalypse: conquest, war, famine, and death. The legend of the centaur—the mythical creature that is half man, half horse—is probably further indication of just how alien horses and nomads initially were to sedentary society. Centaur literally means “those who herd cattle,” and while there are many theories as to its origin, one suggestion is that it originates from Scythian incursions into Thrace in ancient Greece.

  3 Originally from the Chronica Majora, written by Matthew Paris in the thirteenth century. I read it in the Introductory Notice of The Journey of William of Rubruck to the Eastern Parts of the World 1253–55, with Two Accounts of the Earlier Journey of John of Plan De Carpine, trans. and ed. W.W. Rockhill (London, 1900; repr. Asian Educational Services, 1998), xiv, xv.

  4 Ammianus Marcellinus, Book 31, trans. Walter Hamilton (Hammondsworth, UK: Penguin, 1986), quoted in Erik Hildinger, Warriors of the Steppe: A Military History of Central Asia 500 BC to 1700 AD (New York: Da Capo Press, 2001), 57, 58.

  5 During the Mongol reign, travel from east to west was not limited to nomads and armies. A Nestorian Christian from China, Rabban Saums, who set out on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, became the effective Mongol ambassador in Europe and had audiences with King Philip the Fair of France in Paris, King Edward I of England in Bordeaux, and the Pope.

  6 This drew author Gabriel Ronay to speculate in his book The Tartar Khan’s Englishman that the Englishman had probably been Master Robert Eracles—an English knight and former adviser of King John who had been exiled and eventually picked up by Mongol talent scouts and taken to Mongolia.

  7 It is worth clarifying that although Hungary was indeed emerging from Soviet rule, it had long been a settled nation. In fact the Magyars—who had arrived on horseback from the east in the ninth century—were already a sedentary Christian society at the time of the Mongolian invasion in the thirteenth century.

  CHAPTER 2: THE LAST NOMAD NATION

  1 Although the upper Orkhon was effectively Genghis Khan’s administrative capital, particularly from 1220 onward, it was his son Ogodei who is c
onsidered the founder of Kharkhorin in the years following Genghis’s death. Genghis’s grandson Khubilai later built a capital for the Yuan dynasty (greater China and Mongolia), Khanbalikh (also known as Ta-tu or Dadu). Khanbalikh stood on the approximate site of modern Beijing.

  2 There is some dispute about Genghis Khan’s birth year. I am assuming his birth date is the same as that referenced by Mongolians today, 1162.

  3 The Borjigins were part of the Mongol tribe, which also included the Taijut clan.

  4 The Tatars were a tribe that had emerged in the eighth century as one of the most powerful on the eastern steppe, but their power had begun to wane by the twelfth century. They were one of the Borjigins’ enemies.

  5 The vast majority of my journey would be through the former territory of the Khanate of the Golden Horde.

  CHAPTER 3: WOLF TOTEM

  1 The Secret History of the Mongols—a mix of factual history and folklore documenting the rise of the Mongol Empire—was written for the Mongol royal family some time after Genghis Khan’s death in 1227. It is the oldest surviving Mongolian literary work.

  CHAPTER 4: A FINE LINE TO THE WEST

  1 The severe nature of these fleshy wounds was later diagnosed as a symptom of Cushing’s syndrome.

  2 As recounted in Jack Weatherford’s Genghis Khan and the Making of the Modern World, the wartime spirit banner, and therefore soul, of Genghis Khan was protected by his descendants until the Stalin purges of Mongolia in the 1930s, when it disappeared.