Guantánamo

  2 Memorandum for Colonel Mike Meese, Academic Report—Trip to Guantánamo, US Military Academy, June 28, 2006, 1–2.

  3 Telephone interview, General Barry McCaffrey, USA (Ret.), April 19, 2010.

  4 McCaffrey, Guantánamo Memorandum, 4; Crawford quoted by Bob Woodward, “Detainee Tortured, Says US Official,” Washington Post, January 14, 2009, at www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/01/13/AR2009011303372.html.

  5 McCaffrey, Guantánamo Memorandum, 4–5.

  6 Ibid., 5; McCaffrey telephone interview, April 19, 2010.

  7 See, for example, the Gallup poll of January 16, 2009 (www.gallup.com/poll/113893/americans-send-no-clear-mandate-Guantánamo-bay.aspx), the USA Today /Gallup poll of June 1, 2009 (www.usatoday.com/news/world/2009-06-01-gitmo_N.htm), the CNN poll of March 30, 2010 (www.miamiherald.com/2010/03/30/1554710/poll-americans-dont-want-obama.html), and the Rasmussen survey of December 15, 2010 (www.rasmussenreports.com/public_content/politics/general_politics/december_2010/most_voters_worry_that_closing_Guantánamo_will_set_dangerous_terrorists_free).

  8 Charlie Savage, “Vote Hurts Obama Push to Empty Cuba Prison,” New York Times, December 23, 2010, A18.

  9 Executive Order: Periodic Review of Individuals Detained at Guantánamo Bay Naval Station Pursuant to the Authorization for U.S. Military Force, Office of the Press Secretary, The White House, March 7, 2011, available at www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/Executive_Order_on_Periodic_Review.pdf; Charlie Savage, “Detainee Review Proposal Is Prepared for Obama,” New York Times, December 21, 2010, at www.nytimes.com/2010/12/22/us/22gitmo.html?_r=1.

  10 Telephone interview with David Barron, former head of the Office of Legal Counsel in the Obama administration, October 13, 2010. In his May 2009 address on torture and indefinite detention at the National Archives, President Obama vowed that his administration would “no longer place the burden to prove that hearsay is unreliable on the opponent of the hearsay,” though the journalist Robert Chesney has argued that this standard still falls well short of civil law protections. Barack Obama, “Remarks by the President on National Security,” National Archives, Washington, D.C., May 21, 2009, at www.whitehouse.gov/the_press_office/Remarks; Robert Chesney, “The Least Worst Venue,” Foreign Policy, January 21, 2011, at www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2011/01/21/the_least_worst_venue?page=0,1. To Jonathan Hafetz, improvements in the commission system aren’t good enough, given the Obama administration’s adoption of its predecessor’s broad interpretation of what can be characterized as war crimes. Jonathan Hafetz, “Reversal of Guantánamo Policy Will Harm US Reputation Abroad,” DW-World.de, January 21, 2011, at www.dw-world.de/dw/article/0,,14779114,00.html.

  11 Barron interview, October 13, 2010.

  12 “Lawyer Disputes Portrayal of Detainee,” New York Times, February 5, 2011, A12.

  13 Scott Shane, “Obama Defends Detention Conditions for Soldier Accused in WikiLeaks Case,” New York Times, March 11, 2011, at www.nytimes.com/2011/03/12/us/12manning.html.

  14 Commander Charles M. Cooke, Memorandum for Commander R. O. Davis, USN Office of Naval Operations, Sept. 26, 1937. Charles M. Cooke Papers, Manuscript Division, Hoover Institution, Stanford University. On Stevenson, see “Reminiscences of Admiral Robert Lee Dennison, USN (Ret.)” (Annapolis, Md.: U.S. Naval Institute, 1975), 405, and “Reminiscences of Vice Admiral Eli T. Reich, USN (Ret.)” (Annapolis, Md.: U.S. Naval Institute, 1983), 250–60; on Carter and Guantánamo, see National Security Council Memo, December 7, 1978, to Zbigniew Brzezinski, National Security Archive. On Reagan and Guantánamo, see National Defense 66, no. 370 (September 1981): 3.

  15 Author interview, General John J. Sheehan, USMC (Ret.), January 25, 2007, Arlington, Va.

  16 Telephone interview, General Barry McCaffrey, USA (Ret.), April 19, 2010.

  17 Telephone interview, Commander Jeffrey H. Johnston, October 8, 2010.

  18 Ibid.

  19 Sheehan interview, January 25, 2007. Cf. Carol Rosenberg, “Disaster Drill Illustrates New Approach to Cuba,” July 20, 2009, Miami Herald, available at www.palmbeachpost.com/news/content/state/epaper/2009/07/20/0720_cuban_troops.html?cxtype=rss&cxsvc=7&cxcat=0.

  20 Ibid.

  21 Author interview, Rafael Hernández, May 25, 2005, Cambridge, Mass.

  22 Author interviews, Rolando Céspedez, Oscar Pila, Riquet Caballero Courguet, Francisco Suárez, Juan Raúl Llopis, and Manuel López, August 4, 2007, Miami, Fla., and Alberto Gonzales, June 3, 2008, Storrs, Conn.

  ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

  So many people contributed to the completion of this book that I hesitate to name them lest I leave anybody out. Thank you foremost to my wife, Anne, and to my children, Oliver, Julian, and Nathalie, whose love and joy and zest for life fuel my work and sustained this project from beginning to end. Thanks, too, to Richard Fox, David Hollinger, Jane Kamensky, Jim Kloppenberg, and Sayres Rudy, whose friendship, encouragement, and example provide continuous inspiration.

  This book took shape in several institutional settings, some formal, some not. It sprang to life in the hospitable surroundings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, in Cambridge, Massachusetts, where I was visiting scholar (2003–2004) and where Leslie Berlowitz, Jim Carroll, and Jim Miller, among others, maintained a climate of dazzling intellectual stimulation. I am fortunate to be a member of a Boston-area writing group that has included Steve Biehl, Jane Kamensky, Steven Mihm, Mark Peterson, John Plotz, Jennifer Roberts, Seth Rockman, Dan Sharfstein, Conevery Valencius, and Michael Willrich. Their close reading of early chapters of this book set it on a firm foundation. I am likewise lucky to be based in Harvard University’s Committee on Degrees in Social Studies, where Richard Tuck, Anya Bernstein, and a brilliant faculty and staff make coming to work each day exhilarating.

  Jim Campbell, Roger Lane, and Scott Tromanhauser read a draft of the entire manuscript. Jim and Roger provided detailed and trenchant criticism, putting me permanently in debt. Bob Branfon, Kevin Caffrey, Jeff Kahn, Jim Kloppenberg, Sayres Rudy, and Alan Taylor read chapters and/or sections along the way, saving me from all manner of errors and infelicities.

  Faculty and students at the following universities or think tanks commented generously on different iterations of this project: Brandeis University, Centro de Estudios de Información de la Defensa (Havana, Cuba), Columbia University, Harvard University, Oxford University, University of Georgia, University of Madrid, University of Sevilla, and University of Sydney.

  Scholars and writers from many different fields provided direction and encouragement at critical stages. Sincerest thanks to Walter Alvarez, David Carlson, Mark Clague, John Coatsworth, Jay Cope, Jorge I. Domínquez, Don Doyle, Rafael Hernández, Manuel Iturralde-Vinent, William Johns, Carl Kaysen, Hal Klepak, Kris Lane, Dick Lehr, William Leith, Anthony Lewis, John Lewis, Jana Lipman, Tom Miller, Richard Millett, Louis Pérez, John Paul Rathbone, Theresa Roosevelt, Patrick Roth, Nancy San Martin, Robert Pendleton, Phil Richardson, Stephen Schwab, Paul Stillwell, Michael Straus, Stephen Webre, Samuel Wilson, and James Zackrison.

  Research for this project took me on some memorable trips. On three visits to the Guantánamo Naval Base, I was greeted with astounding generosity and assistance by, among others, Admiral David Thomas, Captain Mark Leary, Commander Jeffrey Johnston, Pete Becola, Stacey Byington, Christopher Creighton, Clayton Helms, Earlene Helms, Harriet Johnston, Don King, JoAnn King, Robert Lamb, Paul Schoenfeld, Frank Simone, and Cy Winter. In Havana, Cuba, I benefited from the warmth and hospitality of Rolando Al-mirante, Boris Ivan Crespo, Luis M. Garcia Cuñarro, Jesús Bermúdez Cutiño, and Cynthia Newport. In Miami, Florida, I was welcomed and assisted by Alfredo Duran and Marcos Antonio Ramos, among others, as well as by Marlene Bastien, Steve Forester, Randy McGrorty, Myriam Mezadieu, Carol Rosenberg, Alex Stepick, and Irwin Stotzky. In Washington, D.C., Ingrid Ott, Doug Jones, General Jack Sheehan, and Wayne Smith all went way out of their way to help.

  Thank you to the staffs of the following libraries: Widener Library (especially Lynn Shirey, libraria
n for Latin America); Houghton Library; the United States Marine Corps Research Library, Quantico, Virginia; the Navy Department Library, Washington, D.C. (especially Paul Tobin, Glenn Helm, and Ed Marolda); the British Library; Archivo General de Indias, Sevilla, Spain; the Cuban Historical Collection, University of Miami; the Library of Congress; the National Archives, Washington, D.C.; and the National Security Archive, George Washington University.

  Various individuals defy categorization but provided much appreciated support somewhere along the line. Thanks to Tim Bartlett, Rob Chodat, Michael Coulson, Laura Fisher, Alex Gourevitch, Sarah Lovitt, Richard Pennington, Chuck Ryan, Glenda Sluga, John Straubel, Don Soldini, Liz Svezchenco, and Alfie Ulloa. I also want to salute my Spanish instructors: Lydia Jimenez, Monica Palacio, and especially Wega Firenze, the last of whom redefines what it means to be a teacher.

  With tremendous savvy and just the right amount of force, Wendy Strothman, my friend and literary agent, nurtured this book to fruition. Many thanks, Wendy, for your unflagging faith. Anyone who has ever published with Hill and Wang/FSG knows the privilege it is to work with the teams assembled by Thomas LeBien and Jeff Seroy. At Hill and Wang, Dan Crissman proved wise beyond his years, setting the gold standard for what it means to be an editor. At FSG, publicist Steve Weil was accessible and focused throughout, bringing grace and equanimity to an often-maligned aspect of book publishing.

  I know I am leaving people out. I burn a candle to the unnamed but not forgotten individuals who helped make this book possible. If, after all this help, mistakes remain, they are mine and mine alone.

  Finally, this book is dedicated to my parents, Alix and Chris Hansen, whose unconditional love for me and support for this project are its ultimate sine qua non.

  INDEX

  The index that appeared in the print version of this title does not match the pages of your eBook. Please use the search function on your eReading device to search for terms of interest. For your reference, the terms that appear in the print index are listed below.

  Abraham, Stephen

  Abu Ghraib

  Adams, John Quincy

  Addington, David

  Administrative Procedures Act

  Afghanistan; war in

  Africa; slave trade

  agriculture; colonial; late-nineteenth-century; of 1900s–1930s; of 1950s–1960s; planter community; sugar ; see also specific crops

  alcohol; naval base life and; Prohibition; rum-running operations

  Alcudia

  Alford, Zeb

  Alien Migrant Interdiction Operation (AMIO)

  al Qaeda; prisoners

  al-Qahtani, Mohammed; interrogation and torture of

  al-Rabiah, Fouad Mahmoud

  American Federation of Labor

  American Revolution

  Anderson, Jack

  Andy Griffith Show, The

  annexation debate

  Aristide, Jean-Bertrand

  Army Field Manual

  Assange, Julian

  Atkins, Edwin

  Atlantic Monthly

  Auténtico Party

  Avril, Prosper

  Baccus, Rick

  banking

  Baracoa

  Barron, David

  Barrows, John Henry

  Batista, Fulgencio

  Bay of Pigs invasion

  Beaupré, A. M.

  Belcher, Jonathan

  Beveridge, Albert

  Billard, Jules

  bin Laden, Osama

  black Cubans; discrimination against; of 1900s–1930s; revolt; slavery

  Black Hawk, USS

  black market

  Blackmun, Harry

  Blanco y Erenas, Ramón

  Bohemia

  Boqueron

  Boston

  Boston Herald

  Boston Journal

  Boumediene v. Bush

  Bourbon monarchy

  Bowman, Spike

  Brant, David

  Breckenridge, Joseph C.

  Brook, Thomas

  Brooke, John

  Bryan, William Jennings

  Buchanan, James

  Buehlman, Victor

  Buehn, Robert A.

  Bulkeley, John D.

  Burke, Arleigh

  Burleson, William

  Bush, George H. W.; Haitian refugee policy; Kennebunkport Order

  Bush, George W.: arrogant, go-it-alone style of; Geneva policy; interrogation and torture policy ; post-9/11 Guantánamo policy; Torture Memo

  Caimanera; life on naval base; prostitution; see also Guantánamo naval base

  Cajigal, Francisco

  California

  Camp Bulkeley; riots

  Camp Delta; cages; religion abused at; torture techniques

  Camp McCalla

  Campos y Antón, Arsenio Martínez

  camps, refugee; riots

  Camp 7,

  Camp X-Ray

  Canning, George

  Caribbean

  Carmichael, William

  Carpenter, Frank

  Cartagena

  Carteles

  Carter, Jimmy

  Casimiroid people

  Castellanos, Gerardo

  Castillo, Leonel J.

  Castro, Fidel; Cuban Missile Crisis; Kennedy’s operations against; Mariel Boatlift and; refugees and; regime of; resistance movement; rise to power, ; water fight with naval base

  Castro, Raúl; kidnapping of U.S. Marines

  Catholicism

  Cayman Trench

  Cédras, Raoul

  Central America

  Central Intelligence Agency (CIA); covert operations in Cuba; Cuban Missile Crisis

  Cervera y Topete, Pascual

  Céspedes, Carlos Manuel de

  Chambers, Elizabeth

  character, Cuban

  Cheney, Dick

  Chertoff, Michael

  Chibás, Eduardo

  Chicago Tribune

  China; labor

  Christianity

  Cienfuegos

  cigars

  Civiletti case

  civil war

  Cleveland, Grover

  climate

  Clinton, Bill; Haitian refugee policy

  coal

  Cochrane, Henry Clay

  cocoa

  coffee

  Cold War

  Cole, USS

  colonial America; introduced to Guantánamo; Revolution; sugar industry and; see also specific colonies

  colonization; British; French; Spanish

  Columbia, USS

  Columbus, Christopher; discovery of Guantánamo Bay

  Combatant Status Review Tribunals (CSRTs)

  communism; gun running; Haiti and; of 1950s–1960s; resistance movement; Soviet

  Communist Party

  commuters; firing of

  Conrad, Joseph

  Conseil National de Gouvernement (CNG)

  constitution, Cuban

  Convention Against Torture

  Cooke, Charles M.

  copper

  coral

  Corey, Herbert; article on Guantánamo naval base

  Costa Rica

  cotton

  Crane, Stephen

  Crawford, Susan

  Creoles

  Crittenden, William

  CTC

  Cuba,; “Africanization” of; aftermath of Spanish-American War; annexation debate; anti-Americanism; Batista government; Bay of Pigs invasion; British interests in; British occupation of 1762–1763, ; character; Cold War; colonization of; Communism; constitution; Cuban Missile Crisis; Cuban refugees; discovered by Columbus; of early to mid nineteenth century; of early nineteenth century; of early twentieth century; economic expansion; of eighteenth century; of fifteenth century; filibustering plans for; formation of independent government; gun running; Haitian refugee problem; imperial competition for; imperial reform and economic expansion; independence; Kennedy’s operations against; of late nineteenth century; lawlessness; Mopox Commission; of 19
00s–1930s; of 1940s, ; of 1950s–1960s; of 1970s–1980s; of 1990s, ; prehistoric; prostitution; racial conflagration; resistance movement; rise of Havana; of seventeenth century; of sixteenth century; slave trade; -Soviet relations; Spanish-American War; as Spanish colony; sugar ; Ten Years’ War; Twenty-sixth of July movement; War of Jenkins’ Ear; War of Independence; as welfare state; World War II and; see also U.S.-Cuban relations

  Cuban American Bar Association, Inc. v. Christopher

  Cuban Army; civil war; Spanish-American War

  Cuban Committee on Relations

  Cuban Constitutional Convention

  Cuban Missile Crisis

  Cuban Revolution

  Cuban Revolutionary Party

  Cuban War of Independence

  Cuzco Well

  Davis, Jefferson

  Deer, Lorenzo Salomon

  Delany, Martin

  democracy

  Dennison, Robert

  Detainee Treatment Act (DTA)

  Días Ane, Higinio

  Díaz de Priego, Baltasar

  disease; HIV-positive refugees; Vector Control; venereal

  Dobbs, Michael

  Dolphin, USS

  Dominican Republic; U.S. occupation of

  Drake, John

  drugs

  Dulles, Allen W.

  Dulles, John Foster

  Dunlavey, Michael

  Dunphy, William

  Dupuy de Lôme, Enrique

  Duvalier, François; rise to power

  Duvalier, Jean-Claude

  dysentery

  Eagle, USS

  Economic Society of Friends of the Country

  economy; barter; colonial; free market; expansion; late-nineteenth-century; naval base; of 1900s–1930s; of 1950s–1960s; post–Ten Years’ War; slave; War of Independence and

  education