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24. Don S. Kirschner, The Paradox of Professionalism: Reform and Public Service in Urban America, 1900–1940 (New York: Greenwood Press, 1986), 179; Jon C. Teaford, The Unheralded Triumph: City Government in America, 1870–1900 (Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1984); Terrence J. McDonald, The Parameters of Urban Fiscal Policy: Socio-Economic Change and Political Culture in San Francisco, 1860–1906 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986); Barrows, “Urbanizing America,” in Calhoun, Gilded Age, 107; Lincoln Steffens, The Shame of the Cities (New York: Hill and Wang, 1957 [1904]), 2.
25. Diner, A Very Different Age, 5. Charles W. Calhoun, “The Political Culture: Public Life and the Conduct of Politics,” in Gilded Age, ed. Calhoun, 185–213, criticizes conventional stereotypes of politicians in the Gilded Age.
26. Cashman, America in the Gilded Age, 36–72, 100–134; Arnesen, “American Workers and the Labor Movement,” 39–61.
27. Painter, Standing at Armageddon, xxix; Cashman, America in the Gilded Age, 97–98; Wahlgren Summers, Gilded Age, 174–178; Joseph R. Gusfield, Symbolic Crusade: Status Politics and the American Temperance Movement (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1963); Bordin, Woman and Temperance; Paul Aaron and David Musto, “Temperance and Prohibition in America: A Historical Overview,” in Alcohol and Public Policy: Beyond the Shadow of Prohibition, eds. Mark H. Moore and Dean R. Gerstein (Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1981), 127–181.
28. McCormick, “Public Life in Industrial America,” 110; Cashman, America in the Gilded Age, 238–240, 242; Wahlgren Summers, Gilded Age, 156–161, 259; Leslie H. Fishel Jr., “The African-American Experience,” in Calhoun, Gilded Age, 137–161.
29. Wahlgren Summers, Gilded Age, 157; McWilliams, Idea of Fraternity in America, 503; Eileen L. McDonagh, “Race, Class, and Gender in the Progressive Era,” in Progressivism, eds. Milkis and Mileur, 145–191.
30. Emporia (Kan.) Gazette, February 1, 1912, quoted in Jean B. Quandt, From the Small Town to the Great Community: The Social Thought of Progressive Intellectuals (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1970), 17.
31. Diner, Very Different Age, 45.
32. Quandt, Small Town to Great Community, 23–35. Thanks to Brad Clarke for his review of Progressive political thought.
33. William Allen White, The Old Order Changeth: A View of American Democracy (New York: Macmillan, 1910), 250–252.
34. As quoted in Michael J. Sandel, Democracy’s Discontent: America in Search of a Public Philosophy (Cam-bridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1996), 208.
35. Quandt, Small Town to Great Community, 44–45, quoting Mary Parker Follett, The New State (New York: Longmans, Green, 1918), 251.
36. Quandt, Small Town to Great Community, 39, 41.
37. Robert Park, Society: Collective Behavior, News and Opinion, Sociology and Modern Society, ed. Everett Cherrington Hughes et al. (Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1955 [1918]), 147, as quoted in Quandt, Small Town to Great Community, 146; John Dewey, The Public and Its Problems (Denver, Colo.: Alan Swallow, 1927), 138–139.
38. Clarke Chambers, Seedtime of Reform: American Social Service and Social Action, 1918–1933 (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1963); Kathleen D. McCarthy, Noblesse Oblige: Charity and Cultural Philanthropy in Chicago, 1849–1929 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982); Paul Starr, The Social Transformation of American Medicine (New York: Basic Books, 1982); Judith Ann Trolander, Professionalism and Social Change: From the Settlement House Movement to Neighborhood Centers, 1886 to the Present (New York: Columbia University Press, 1987); William H. Wilson, The City Beautiful Movement (Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989); Robyn Muncy, Creating a Female Dominion in American Reform, 1890–1935 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991); Robert Fisher, Let the People Decide: Neighborhood Organizing in America, 2nd ed. (New York: Twayne Publishers, 1994); Steven G. Brint, In an Age of Experts: The Changing Role of Professionals in Politics and Public Life (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1994).
39. Painter, Standing at Armageddon, xliii; Wahlgren Summers, Gilded Age, 119; Patterson, America in the Twentieth Century, 40.
40. Diner, Very Different Age, 203–205; Patterson, America in the Twentieth Century, 40.
41. Walter Lippman, Drift and Mastery (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1961 [1914]), 92, quoted in Sandel, Democracy’s Discontent, 205–206, emphasis added.
42. Booth Tarkington, The Turmoil (New York: Grosset & Dunlap, 1915), 2, as quoted in Barrows, “Urbanizing America,” in Calhoun, Gilded Age, 91.
43. Barrows, “Urbanizing America,” in Calhoun, Gilded Age, 91. Cooley quoted in Roderick D. McKenzie on Human Ecology, ed. Amos H. Hawley (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1968), 72.
44. Quandt, Small Town to Great Community, 5, 7.
45. Benjamin Disraeli, Sybil, or, The Two Nations (London: H. Colburn, 1845), bk. 2, ch. 5; Quandt, Small Town to Great Community, 19.
46. Quandt, Small Town to Great Community, 10.
47. Boyer, Urban Masses, esp. 161; Charles, Service Clubs, 25; Bender, Urban Vision; Hays, Response to Industrialism; Quandt, Small Town to Great Community, esp. 28; McWilliams, Idea of Fraternity, esp. 484.
48. Woodrow Wilson, The New Freedom (New York: Doubleday, Page & Company, 1913), as cited in Diner, Very Different Age, frontispiece and 200.
49. McWilliams, Idea of Fraternity, 487.
50. McCormick, “Public Life in Industrial America,” in Foner, New American History, 103–104.
51. Skocpol, “How Americans Became Civic.”
52. Theda Skocpol, “Civic America, Then and Now,” in Putnam, Dynamics of Social Capital in Comparative Perspective; Wahlgren Summers, Gilded Age, 49.
53. For extensive bibliography, see Gamm and Putnam, “Growth of Voluntary Associations.”
54. For methodological details, see Gamm and Putnam, “Growth of Voluntary Associations,” from which figure 94 and some of the associated text are drawn.
55. See Glenn R. Carroll, “Organizational Ecology,” Annual Review of Sociology 10 (1984): 71–93, esp. figure 2c at 88.
56. Skocpol, “How Americans Became Civic.” The ratio for those that were ever that large is 29 of 58. More than half of all such large membership organizations that are still in existence (however attenuated) were founded in the 1870–1920 period—24 of 43.
57. Encarta 2000 New World Almanac 2000. Not all major associations are included in this list, but it appears to be broadly representative of American associations. A similar analysis of all associations listed in the 1999 World Almanac yielded virtually identical results. Claudia Goldin and Lawrence F. Katz, “The Shaping of Higher Education: The Formative Years in the United States, 1890 to 1940,” Journal of Economic Perspectives 13 (1999): 37–61, and NBER Working Paper No. W6537 (April 1998), show that 1890–1910 was also the peak period in American history for founding universities and learned societies.
58. For the four previous paragraphs, see W. S. Harwood, “Secret Societies in America,” North American Review 164 (1897): 617, 620, and David T. Beito, From Mutual Aid to the Welfare State: Fraternal Societies and Social Services, 1890–1967 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2000), quotations at 14, 10, 3, 27. Beito makes clear that one central function of fraternal organizations was to provide life, health, and accident insurance, and as those functions were assumed by private enterprise and government, beginning in the 1920s and 1930s, the fraternal orders lost an important part of their rationale.
59. McCormick, “Public Life in Industrial America,” in Foner, New American History, 108; Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers, ch. 6; Painter, Standing at Armageddon, esp. 105.
60. Diner, Very Different Age, 72, 76–101, quotation at 92. See also Beito, From Mutual Aid to the Welfare State, ch. 2, on mutual aid in immigrant communities.
61. Rowland Berthoff, An Unsettled People: Social Order and Disorder in American History (New York: Harper & Row, 1971), 273; Diner, Very Different Age, 91.
62. W. E. B. Du Bois, The Philadelphia Negro: A Social Study (New York: Schocken Books, 1967 [1899]), 224–233, as cited in Loretta J. Williams, Black Freemasonry and Middle-Class Realities (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1980), 85; Jesse Thomas Moore Jr., A Search for Equality: The National Urban League, 1910–1961 (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1981); Ralph Watkins, “A Reappraisal of the Role of Volunteer Associations in the African American Community,” Afro-Americans in New York Life and History 14 (1990): 51–60; Evelyn Brooks Higginbotham, Righteous Discontent: The Women’s Movement in the Black Baptist Church, 1880–1920 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1993); Firor Scott, “Most Invisible of All”; Diner, Very Different Age, 141–147; Wahlgren Summers, Gilded Age, 288. This pattern of growth is substantiated by unpublished evidence from the project described in Gamm and Putnam, “Growth of Voluntary Associations.”
63. E. Brooks Holifield, “Toward a History of American Congregations,” in James P. Wind and James W. Lewis, eds., American Congregations, vol. 2 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994), 23–53, quotation at 39–41.
64. Higginbotham,Righteous Discontent, 7; Arthur S. Link and Richard L. McCormick,Progressivism (Wheeling, III.: Harlan Davidson, 1983), 23; Cashman,America in the Gilded Age, 370; McWilliams,Idea of Fraternity, 479–481. On Chautauqua, see Theodore Morrison, Chatauqua: A Center for Education, Religion, and the Arts in America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1974), quotation at 181.
65. Painter, Standing at Armageddon, 44, 95, et passim; Husock, “Elks Clubs, Settlement Houses… ,” 7; Leo Troy, Trade Union Membership, 1897–1962 (New York: National Bureau of Economic Research; distributed by Columbia University Press, 1965), 2. Membership faltered from 1905 to 1909, but then resumed its growth.
66. Cochran and Miller, Age of Enterprise, 235.
67. Boyer, Urban Masses; LeRoy Ashby, Saving the Waifs: Reformers and Dependent Children, 1890–1917 (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1984); Dominick Cavallo, Muscles and Morals: Organized Playgrounds and Urban Reform, 1880–1920 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1981); Lela B. Costin, “Unraveling the Mary Ellen Legend: Origins of the ‘Cruelty’ Movement,” Social Service Review 65 (1991): 203–223; Michael B. Katz, “Child-Saving,” History of Education Quarterly 26 (1986): 413–424; Macleod, Building Character in the American Boy; Franklin M. Reck, The 4-H Story (Chicago: National Committee on Boys and Girls Club Work, 1951); Michael Rosenthal, The Character Factory: Baden-Powell and the Origins of the Boy Scout Movement (New York: Pantheon Books, 1984); Claudia Goldin, “America’s Graduation from High School: The Evolution and Spread of Secondary Schooling in the Twentieth Century,” Journal of Economic History 58 (1998): 345–374.
68. Wahlgren Summers, Gilded Age, 177.
69. Husock, “Elks Clubs, Settlement Houses… ,” 9; Painter, Standing at Armageddon, 107; McCormick, “Public Life in Industrial America,” in Foner, New American History, 109; Diner, Very Different Age, 21–23; and Allen F. Davis, Spearheads for Reform: The Social Settlements and the Progressive Movement, 1890–1914 (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1984). For alternative perspectives on the settlement house movement, see Ruth Hutchinson Crocker, Social Work and Social Order: The Settlement House Movement in Two Industrial Cities, 1889–1930 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1992), and Elizabeth Lasch-Quinn, Black Neighbors: Race and the Limits of Reform in the Settlement House Movement (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1993) and the works cited there.
70. Peter Levine, The New Progressive Era: Toward a Fair and Deliberative Democracy (Boulder, Colo.: Rowman & Littlefield, 2000), xi. Peter G. Filene, “An Obituary for ‘The Progressive Movement,’” American Quarterly 22 (1970): 20–34.
71. Myron T. Scudder, “Rural Recreation: A Socializing Factor,” Country Life 40 (March 1912): 175–190, quotation at 185–86. See also Cavallo, Muscles and Morals, 8.
72. Michael Sandel, Democracy’s Discontent, 210; McWilliams, Idea of Fraternity, 475.
73. Husock, “Elks Clubs, Settlement Houses… ,” 8; Marvin Lazerson, “Urban Reform and the Schools: Kindergartens in Massachusetts, 1870–1915,” History of Education Quarterly (summer 1971), 115–142; and Michael Steven Shapiro, Child’s Garden: The Kindergarten Movement from Froebel to Dewey (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1983). Thanks to Melissa Buis for work on this and other important aspects of social capital in American history.
74. McCormick, “Public Life in Industrial America,” in Foner, New American History, 107. American social science was born in this period as a handmaiden of reformism; see Anthony Oberschall, “The Institutionalization of American Sociology,” in The Establishment of Empirical Sociology: Studies in Continuity, Discontinuity, and Institutionalization, ed. Anthony Oberschall (New York: Harper & Row, 1972), esp. 198, and Dorothy Ross, The Origins of American Social Science (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1991). For a thoughtful, thorough account of the Progressives’ commitment to civic engagement and deliberative democracy, see Levine, New Progressive Era.
75. Diner, Very Different Era, 21, 202.
76. Ida M. Tarbell, All in the Day’s Work: An Autobiography (New York: Macmillan, 1939), 82, as cited in Painter, Standing at Armageddon, 72; Painter, Standing at Armageddon, 211, 245; Diner, Very Different Age, 210.
77. Skocpol, “How Americans Became Civic,” 61.
78. Kevin Mattson, Creating a Democratic Public: The Struggle for Urban Participatory Democracy During the Progressive Era (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1998), quotations at 56, 59. For a similar tale, see David C. Hammack, “Community Foundations: The Delicate Question of Purpose,” reprinted in Making the Nonprofit Sector in the United States: A Reader, David C. Hammack, ed. (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1998), 330–353.
79. Gamm and Putnam, “Growth of Voluntary Associations”; Claudia Goldin and Lawrence Katz, “Human Capital and Social Capital: The Rise of Secondary Schooling in America, 1910–1940,” Journal of Interdisciplinary History 29 (1999): 683–723; Link and McCormick, Progressivism, 9.
80. Jon C. Teaford, The Unheralded Triumph; Kenneth Fox, Better City Government: Innovation in American Urban Politics, 1850–1937 (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1977); Martin J. Schiesl, The Politics of Efficiency: Municipal Administration and Reform in America, 1880–1920 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1977); Link and McCormick, Progressivism, 28–32.
81. See the trilogy of historian Morton Keller: Affairs of State: Public Life in Late Nineteenth-Century America (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1977); Regulating a New Economy: Public Policy and Economic Change in America, 1900–1933 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1990); and Regulating a New Society: Public Policy and Social Change in America, 1900–1933 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1994); Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers.
82. Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers, 321–372; Elisabeth S. Clemens, “Securing Political Returns to Social Capital: Women’s Associations in the United States, 1880s–1920s,” Journal of Interdisciplinary History 29 (1999): 613–638.
83. Link and McCormick, Progressivism, esp. ch. 3, “Social Justice and Social Control”; McCormick, “Public Life in Industrial America,” in Foner, New American History, 110–114; McWilliams, Idea of Fraternity, 498–502; Philip J. Ethington, “The Metropolis and Multicultural Ethics: Direct Democracy versus Deliberative Democracy in the Progressive Era,” in Progressivism, eds. Milkis and Mileur, 192–225, quotation at 192. On turnout, see chapter 2, figure 1, in the present book.
84. Linda Gordon, Heroes of their Own Lives: The Politics and History of Family Violence, Boston 1880–1960 (New York: Penguin, 1988); Painter, Standing at Armageddon, xii.
85. C. H. Henderson, “The Place and Function of Voluntary Associations,” American Journal of Sociology 1 (1895): 327–334; Louis Wirth, “Urbanism as a Way of Life,” American Journal of Sociology 44 (1938): 1–24;
Arthur M. Schlesinger, “Biography of a Nation of Joiners,” American Historical Review 50 (October 1944): 1–25; and Oscar and Mary Handlin, The Dimensions of Liberty (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1961).
86. Quoted in Kirschner, Paradox of Professionalism, 15.
87. Husock, “Elks Clubs, Settlement Houses… ,” 6. The second Ku Klux Klan also had anti-immigrant, anti-Catholic, anticrime, and fundamentalist components and was strongest in the Midwest, not the South.
CHAPTER 24: TOWARD AN AGENDA FOR SOCIAL CAPITALISTS
1. The Saguaro Seminar is composed of thirty-three accomplished thinkers and doers who meet regularly to develop actionable ideas to increase Americans’ connectedness to one another and to community institutions. Participants come from diverse backgrounds, professions, and parts of the country; they have included Xavier de Souza Briggs, Bliss Browne, Kirbyjon Caldwell, John Dilulio, E. J. Dionne, Carolyn Doggett, Lewis Feldstein, Chris Gates, Stephen Goldsmith, Amy Gutmann, Henry Izumizaki, Louise Kennedy, Vanessa Kirsch, Carol Lamm, Liz Lerman, Glenn Loury, John Mascotte, Martha Minow, Mark Moore, Barack Obama, Peter Pierce, Ralph Reed, Paul Resnick, Kris Rondeau, Tom Sander, Juan Sepúlveda, Robert Sexton, Harry Spence, George Stephanopoulos, Dorothy Stone-man, Lisa Sullivan, Jim Wallis, Vin Weber, and William Julius Wilson. None bears any responsibility for my recommendations here. More information about the Saguaro Seminar can be found by contacting the Seminar staff at the John F. Kennedy School of Government, Harvard University, or at ksgwww.harvard.edu/saguaro. For a complementary compendium of recommendations for revitalizing American democracy, see Levine, New Progressive Era.
2. Delli Carpini and Keeter, What Americans Know About Politics and Why It Matters; A. D. Lutkus et al., The NAEP 1998 Civics Report Card for the Nation (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1999).
3. Fred M. Newmann and Robert A. Rutter, “The Effects of High School Community Service Programs on Students’ Social Development” (Washington, D.C.: National Institute of Education, December 1983); Virginia Hodgkinson and Murray S. Weitzman, Volunteering and Giving Among Teenagers 12 to 17 Years of Age (Washington, D.C.: Independent Sector, 1997); Richard Battistoni, “Service Learning and Democratic Citizenship,” Theory into Practice 35 (1997): 150–156; Thomas Janoski, Mark Musick, and John Wilson, “Being Volunteered? The Impact of Social Participation and Pro-Social Attitudes on Volunteering,” Sociological Forum 13 (September 1998): 495–519; Alan Melchior and Larry Orr, Evaluation of National and Community Service Programs, Overview: National Evaluation of Serve-America (Subtitle B1) (Washington, D.C.: Corporation for National Service, October 20, 1995); Alexander W. Astin and Linda J. Sax, “How Undergraduates Are Affected by Service Participation,” Journal of College Student Development 39, no. 3 (May/June 1998): 251–263; Dwight E. Giles Jr. and Janet Eyler, “The Impact of a College Community Service Laboratory on Students’ Personal, Social, and Cognitive Outcomes,” Journal of Adolescence 17 (1994): 327–339; Richard G. Niemi, Mary Hepburn, and Chris Chapman, “Community Service by High School Students: A Cure for Civic Ills?” Political Behavior (forthcoming, 2000) and the works cited there. “Service learning” refers to community service that is coupled to classwork, and most observers believe that it is more effective in inculcating civic habits. In 1999 about 57 percent of U.S. students in grades 6–12 participated in some form of community service, up from 49 percent in 1996; on the other hand, only slightly more than half of them (30 percent of all students) engaged in service learning. See “Youth Service-Learning and Community Service among 6th- through 12th-Grade Students in the United States, 1996 and 1999” (Washington, D.C.: National Center for Education Statistics, 1999).