Eyes on the Prize

by Juan Williams

  Articles: “Bigger Than a Hamburger,” by Ella J. Baker, in The Southern Patriot, June 1960; “A Conference on the Sit-ins,” by Ted Dienstfrey, in Commentary, June 29, 1960; “Southern Students Take Over,” by Helen Fuller, in The New Republic, May 2, 1960; “We Are All So Very Happy,” by Helen Fuller, in The New Republic, April 25, 1960; “The Negro Revolt Against ‘The Negro Leaders,’” by Louis E. Lomax, in Harper’s Magazine, June 1960; “Evolution of Non-Violence,” by Carleton Mabee, in The Nation, August 12, 1961; “In Pursuit of Freedom,” by William Mahoney in Liberation, September 1961; “Sit-ins: The Students Report,” edited by Jim Peck, published May 1960 by The Congress of Racial Equality, New York, New York; Report of the Raleigh Conference, by the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee; “The Montgomery Freedom Rider Riots of 1961,” by J. Mills Thornton III (paper delivered at the annual meeting of the Alabama Historical Association in Florence, Alabama, April 28, 1984).

  Newspapers: The Afro American, April 23, 30, 1960; Atlanta Constitution, February 1956; March 9, 1960; May 18, 22, 24–26, 1960; May 5, 6, 9, 10, 15–20, 22–25, 27, 29, 30, 1961; Chicago Defender, March 26, 1960; April 2, 9, 16, 23, 30, 1960; May 7, 14, 21, 28, 1960; June 4, 11, 1960; Christian Science Monitor, August 31, 1960; October 20, 24, 29, 1960; January 1, 1961; February 9, 1961; Cincinnati Post & Times Star, April 30, 1960; CORE-LATOR (CORE monthly newspaper), September 1960; The Evening Star, October 13, 24, 1960; February 2, 7, 26, 1961; March 2, 3, 7, 8, 11, 17, 20, 1961; August 20, 1961; November 18, 1961; February 2, 1980; Jackson Star-Times, March 27, 1961; Montgomery Advertiser, May 22–24, 1960; New York Times, February 14, 15, 1960; January 29, 1961; February 6, 19, 1961; March 7, 17, 20, 1961; Philadelphia Tribune, March 1, 1960; Southern School Reporting Service, April 1960; Washington Daily News, March 7, 1961; Washington Post, March 22, 1960; April 23, 1960; November 26, 27, 29, 1960; December 24, 1960; February 7, 13, 23, 24, 1961; March 28, 1961; May 25, 1961; August 21, 24, 1961.

  Interviews: From the oral history collection of the John F. Kennedy library: conversations between Robert F. Kennedy and Burke Marshall; an interview with Burke Marshall. From The Civil Rights Documentation Project: Ella Baker.

  Eyes on the Prize Interviews: Will D. Campbell, Gordon Carey, James Farmer, Nicholas Katzenbach, James M. Lawson, Jr., Fred Leonard, John Lewis, Leo Lillard, Diane Nash, James Peck, Bernie Schweid, John Seigenthaler, Rev. C. T. Vivian, Harris Wofford.

  Chapter Six

  Books: The Making of Black Revolutionaries, by James Forman; The FBI and Martin Luther King, Jr., by David Garrow; King: A Critical Biography, by David Lewis; Let the Trumpet Sound, by Stephen B. Oates; Southern Businessmen and Desegregation, edited by Elizabeth Jacoway and David Colburn; Down to Now, by Pat Watters.

  Articles: Bains, Lee. “Birmingham, 1963: Confrontation Over Civil Rights.” Senior thesis, Harvard College, 1977. From The Journal of Southwest Georgia History, Fall, 1984: “SNCC and the Albany Movement,” by Clayborne Carson; “The Albany Movement: A Chapter in the Life of Martin Luther King, Jr.,” by Stephen B. Oates; “‘De Lawd’ Descends and Is Crucified: Martin Luther King, Jr. in Albany, Georgia,” by John A. Ricks III.

  Newspapers: Pittsburg Courier, December 23, 30, 1961; January 6, 13, 20, 1962; February 24, 1962; March 3, 10, 31, 1962; April 21, 1962; May 12, 1962; August 4, 11, 18, 1962; September 22, 29, 1962.

  Interviews: From the oral history collection of the John F. Kennedy, Burke Marshall.

  Eyes on the Prize Interviews: Dr. William G. Anderson, James Armstrong, Mel Bailey, Rev. James C. Bevel, Rev. Joseph Ellwanger, Don Evans, A. G. Gaston, Patricia Harris, Bernice Johnson, Rudolf Lee, Laurie Pritchett, Charles Sherrod, Rev. Fred Shuttlesworth, David J. Vann, Rev. Wyatt T. Walker.

  March On Washington

  Books: The Making of Black Revolutionaries, by James Forman; Fire in the Streets, by Milton Viorst.

  Eyes on the Prize Interviews: Rev. Ralph Abernathy, James Forman, Corretta Scott King, Bayard Rustin.

  Chapter Seven

  Books: Integration at Ole Miss, by Russell Barrett; The Rise of Massive Resistance, by Newman Bartley; Unlikely Hereos, by Jack Bass; Freedom Summer, by Sally Belfrage; For Us, The Living, by Myrlie Evers; The Making of Black Revolutionaries, by James Forman; The Summer That Didn’t End, by Len Holt; The Past That Would Not Die, by Walter Lord; Mississippi: The Long Hot Summer, by William McCord; The Martyrs, by Jack Mendelsohn; Three Years in Mississippi, by James Meredith; Kennedy Justice, by Victor Navasky; Mississippi: The Closed Society, by James Silver; Stranger at the Gates, by Tracy Sugarman; Mississippi Notebook, by Nicholas Von Hoffman; Letters From Mississippi, edited by Elizabeth Sutherland; Climbing Jacob’s Ladder, by Pat Watters and Reese Cleghorn; Attack on Terror: The FBI Against the Ku Klux Klan, by Don Whitehead.

  Newspapers: New York Times, June 28-July 9, 1964.

  Articles: “Congressional Committee Report on What Happened When Schools Were Integrated in Washington, D.C.,” a pamphlet published by the Citizens’ Council of Greenwood, Mississippi; “Why I Live in Mississippi,” by Medgar Evers, in Ebony, September 1963; “How a Secret Prevented a Massacre at Ole Miss,” by George B. Leonard, T. George Harris, and Christopher S. Wren, in Look, December 31, 1962.

  Eyes on the Prize Interviews: Unita Blackwell, Hodding Carter III, Dave Dennis, John Doar, Darrell Evers, Myrlie Evers, James Forman, Victoria Gray-Adams, Lawrence Guyot, Casey Hayden, Tom Hayden, Erie Johnston, Nicholas Katzenbach, John Lewis, Walter Mondale, Amzie Moore, Robert Moses, Peter Orris, Joseph Rauh, William J. Simmons, Kwame Toure (Stokely Carmichael), and Hollis Watkins.

  Chapter Eight

  Books: Bridge Across Jordan, by Amelia Platts Boynton; Selma 1965, by Charles Fager; The Making of Black Revolutionaries, by James Forman; Protest at Selma, by David Garrow; Lyndon, by Merle Miller; Selma, Lord, Selma, by Sheyann Webb and Rachel West Nelson with Frank Sikora; The Longest Debate, by Charles and Barbara Whalen.

  Newspapers: Atlanta Constitution, February 1965; March 1, 2, 7, 9–14, 1965; Baltimore Sun, March 10, 1965; New York Times, February 1, 5, 8, 12, 19, 25, 1965; March 1, 2, 7, 9–14, 1965.

  Articles: “How a Movement Begins,” by Alvin Adams, in Jet, March 18, 1965; “Malcolm X,” by Alvin Adams, in Jet, March 18, 1965; “Young Man Tries to Register To Vote Five Times Before Death,” by Alvin Adams, in Jet, March 18, 1965; “Against Great Odds … Southern Negroes Try,” by James Austin, in Community, December 1963; “The Untold Story of the March to Montgomery,” by Simeon Booker, in Jet, April 8, 1965; “To Witness,” by V. Rev. Msgr. Daniel M. Cantwell, in Community, May 1965; “The Voter Registration Drive in Selma, Alabama,” by John R. Fry, in Presbyterian Life, October 1963; “Beyond the Bridge,” by Paul Good, in The Reporter, April 8, 1965; “Behind the Selma March,” by Martin Luther King, Jr., in The Saturday Review, April 3, 1965; “New Radicals in Dixie,” by Andrew Kopkind, in The New Republic, April 10, 1965; “Midnight Plane to Alabama,” by George B. Leonard, in The Nation, May 10, 1965; “Enforcing Civil Rights,” a letter from Burke Marshall, in The New Republic, November 16, 1963; “Tension, Not Split, in the Negro Ranks,” by Arlie Schardt, in The Christian Century, May 12, 1965; “Southern Editors and Selma,” by Donald R. Shanor, in Journalism Quarterly, Spring 1967; tributes to Clarence Mitchell by Gloster B. Current and Sen. Daniel Patrick Moynihan, in The Crisis, March 1984; “Registrations in Alabama,” by Howard Zinn, in The New Republic, October 26, 1963.

  Eyes on the Prize Interviews: Rev. James C. Bevel, Sheyann Webb Christburg, Jim Clark, Rev. Joseph Ellwanger, Rev. Dana Greeley, Rev. Orloff W. Miller, Rachel West Nelson, Rev. Frederick D. Reese, Amelia Boynton Robinson, Normareen Shaw, Joseph Smitherman, Albert Turner, Richard Valeriani, C. T. Vivian, George C. Wallace, Ralph W. Yarborough, and Andrew Young.

  Selected Bibliography

  Adams, Olive Arnold. Time Bomb: Mississippi Exposed and the Full Story of Emmett Till. The Mississippi Regional Council of Negro Leadership, 1956.

  Bains, Lee, Jr. “Birmingham, 1963: Confrontation Over Civil Right
s.” Senior thesis, Harvard College, 1977.

  Barrett, Russell. Integration at Ole Miss. Chicago: Quadrangle Books, 1965.

  Bartley, Numan. The Rise of Massive Resistance. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1969.

  Bass, Jack. Unlikely Heroes. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1981.

  Bass, Jack, and Walter De Vries. Transformation of Southern Politics: Social Change and Political Consequence Since 1945. New York: Basic Books, 1976.

  Bates, Daisy. The Long Shadow of Little Rock: A Memoir. New York: David McKay, 1962.

  Belfrage, Sally. Freedom Summer. New York: Viking, 1965.

  Bennett, Lerone, Jr. Before the Mayflower: A History of Black America (fifth edition). New York: Penguin, 1984.

  Brauer, Carl M. John F. Kennedy and the Second Reconstruction. New York: Columbia University Press, 1977.

  Burk, Robert Frederick. The Eisenhower Administration and Black Civil Rights. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1984.

  Carson, Clayborne. In Struggle: SNCC and the Black Awakening of the 1960s. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1981.

  Crisis in the South: A Selection of Editorials from the Arkansas Gazette. Little Rock, 1958.

  Doyle, Don. Nashville Since the 1920s. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1985.

  Evers, Myrlie. For Us, The Living. Garden City, New York: Doubleday, 1967.

  Fager, Charles E. Selma 1965 (second edition). Boston: Beacon Press, 1985.

  Farmer, James. Lay Bare the Heart: An Autobiography of the Civil Rights Movement. New York: Arbor House, 1985.

  Forman, James. The Making of Black Revolutionaries. New York: Macmillan, 1972. Washington, D.C.: Open Hand, 1985.

  Franklin, John Hope. From Slavery to Freedom: A History of Negro Americans (third edition). New York: Vintage Books, 1967.

  Freyer, Tony. The Little Rock Crisis: A Constitutional Interpretation. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1984.

  Garrow, David J. The FBI and Martin Luther King, Jr. New York: W. W. Norton, 1981.

  ——. Protest at Selma. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1978.

  Grant, Joanne, ed. Black Protest: History, Documents, and Analyses, 1619 to the Present. New York: Fawcett World Library, 1968.

  Hamer, Fannie Lou. To Praise Our Bridges: An Autobiography. Jackson: KIPCO, 1967.

  Harding, Vincent. The Other American Revolution. Los Angeles: Center for Afro-American Studies, 1980.

  ——. There Is A River: The Black Struggle for Freedom in America. New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich, 1981.

  Hentoff, Nat. Peace Agitator: The Story of A. J. Muste. New York: Macmillan, 1963.

  Holt, Len. The Summer That Didn’t End. New York: Morrow, 1965.

  Huckaby, Elizabeth. The Crisis at Central High: Little Rock, 1957–58. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1980.

  Jacoway, Elizabeth, and David R. Colburn, eds. Southern Businessmen and Desegregation. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1982.

  Kilpatrick, James. The Southern Case for School Segregation. New York: Crown-Collier, 1962.

  King, Martin Luther, Jr. Stride Toward Freedom: The Montgomery Story. New York: Harper, 1958.

  ——. Why We Can’t Wait. New York: Harper and Row, 1964.

  Kluger, Richard. Simple Justice. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1975.

  Lawson, Steven F. Black Ballots: Voting Rights in the South. New York: Columbia University Press, 1976.

  Lewis, Anthony, and the New York Times. Portrait of a Decade: The Second American Revolution. New York: Random House, 1964.

  Lewis, David. King: A Critical Biography. New York: Prager, 1970.

  Locke, Alain LeRoy, ed. The New Negro. New York: Atheneum, 1975.

  Loewen, James W., and Charles Sallis, eds. Mississippi: Conflict and Change. New York: Pantheon, 1980.

  Lord, Walter. The Past That Would Not Die. New York: Harper and Row, 1965.

  Low, W. Augustus, and Virgil A. Clift, eds. Encyclopedia of Black America. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1981.

  Mayfield, Chris, ed. Growing Up Southern: Southern Exposure Looks at Childhood, Then and Now. New York: Pantheon, 1981.

  McCord, William. Mississippi: The Long Hot Summer. New York: Norton, 1965.

  McNeil, Genna Rae. Groundwork: Charles Hamilton Houston and the Struggle for Civil Rights. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1983.

  Meier, August, and Elliott Rudwick. CORE: A Study in the Civil Rights Movement 1942–1968. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1975.

  Mendelsohn, Jack. The Martyrs: Sixteen Who Gave Their Lives For Racial Justice. New York: Harper, 1966.

  Meredith, James Howard. Three Years in Mississippi. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1966.

  Miller, Merle. Lyndon, an Oral Biography. New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1980.

  Moody, Anne. Coming of Age in Mississippi. New York: Dial Press, 1968.

  Morris, Aldon D. The Origins of the Civil Rights Movement. New York: The Free Press, 1984.

  Navasky, Victor S. Kennedy Justice. New York: Atheneum, 1971.

  The Negro Handbook. Chicago: Johnson Publishing Company, 1966.

  Oates, Stephen B. Let the Trumpet Sound: The Life of Martin Luther King, Jr. New York: Harper and Row, 1982.

  Peck, James. Freedom Ride. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1962.

  Raines, Howell. My Soul is Rested. New York, G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1977.

  Record, Wilson, and Jane Cassels Record, eds. Little Rock, U.S.A.: Materials for Analysis. San Francisco: Chandler, 1960.

  Schlesinger, Arthur, Jr. A Thousand Days: John F. Kennedy in the White House. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1965.

  ——. Robert Kennedy and His Times. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1978.

  Schwartz, Bernard, with Steven Lesher. Inside the Warren Court. Garden City, New York: Doubleday, 1983.

  Selby, Earl, and Miriam Selby. Odyssey: Journey Through Black America. New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1971.

  Silver, James. Mississippi: The Closed Society. New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, 1966.

  Simpson, William M. “Reflections on a Murder: The Emmett Till Case.” In Southern Miscellany: Essays on History in Honor of Glover Moore, edited by Frank Allen Dennis. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1981.

  Smith, Bob. They Closed Their Schools: Prince Edward County, Virginia, 1951–1964. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1965.

  Sugarman, Tracy. Stranger at the Gates: A Summer in Mississippi. New York: Hill and Wang, 1966.

  Sutherland, Elizabeth, ed. Letters from Mississippi. New York: McGraw, 1965.

  Viorst, Milton. Fire in the Streets: America in the 1960s. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1979.

  Von Hoffmann, Nicholas. Mississippi Notebook. New York: D. White, 1964.

  Watters, Pat. Down to Now: Reflections on the Southern Civil Rights Movement. New York: Pantheon, 1971.

  Watters, Pat, and Reese Cleghorn. Climbing Jacob’s Ladder: The Arrival of Negroes in Southern Politics. New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, 1967.

  Webb, Sheyann, and Rachel West Nelson, with Frank Sikora. Selma, Lord, Selma: Girlhood Memories of the Civil-Rights Days. University of Alabama Press, 1980.

  Whalen, Charles, and Barbara Whalen. The Longest Debate. New York: Mentor, 1985.

  Whitehead, Don. Attack on Terror: The FBI Against the Ku Klux Klan in Mississippi. New York: Funk and Wagnalls, 1970.

  Williams, Robert F. Negroes With Guns. Edited by Marc Schleifer. Chicago: Third World Press, 1973.

  Wilkins, Roy, with Tom Mathews. Standing Fast: The Autobiography of Roy Wilkins. New York: Viking, 1982.

  Wofford, Harris. Of Kennedys and Kings: Making Sense of the Sixties. New York: Farrar, Straus, Giroux, 1980.

  Credits

  N.B. The page numbers refer to the printed edition of this book.

  Chapter One

  Page 1: AP/Wide World; Page 3: Moorland-Spingarn Research Center; Page 4: Moorland-Spingarn Research Center; Page 6: all from NAACP; Page 8: Smithsonian Ins
titute: Page 12: all from Library of Congress; Page 13 (top): Elliott Erwitt/Magnum Photos, Inc.; (bottom left and right): Leonard Freed/Magnum Photos, Inc.; Page 14: Moorland-Spingarn Research Center, Howard University; Page 22: courtesy Life Picture Service, Life Magazine, © 1954, Time. Inc. Photos by Robert W. Kelley, Robert Phillips/Black Star, Hank Walker, Carl Iwasaki, and George Skadding; (bottom center): also courtesy of the Brown Family Collection; Page 25: NAACP; Page 26 (top): NAACP; (bottom): George Tames/The New York Times: Page 34: AP/Wide World.

  Chapter Two

  Page 36: Library of Congress/Ben Shahn; Page 38: AP/Wide World; Page 39; Dan Weiner, Courtesy of Sandra Weiner; Page 40 (left): AP/Wide World; (top right and bottom): Ed Clark, Life Magazine, © 1955. Time, Inc.; Page 43: The Chicago Defender; Page 44: AP/Wide World; Page 45: all from Ed Clark, Life Magazine, © 1955, Time, Inc.; Page 47: AP/Wide World; Page 50: Ernest C. Withers, Sr.; Page 53: all from UPI/Bettmann Newsphotos.

  Chapter Three

  Page 58: Tommy Giles; Page 60: Dan Weiner, Courtesy of Sandra Weiner; Page 63: Tommy Giles; Page 64: Highlander Research and Education Center Archives; Page 68 (top): Courtesy of Jo Ann Robinson; (bottom): Arthur L. Freeman; Page 71: AP/Wide World; Page 74: AP/Wide World; Page 75 (top): Dan Weiner, Courtesy of Sandra Weiner; (bottom): AP/Wide World; Page 76: Dan Weiner, Courtesy of Sandra Weiner; Page 80: all from Dan Weiner, Courtesy of Sandra Weiner; Page 83: AP/Wide World; Page 84: all from Dan Weiner, Courtesy of Sandra Weiner; Page 86 (top): AP/Wide World; (bottom left): Dan Weiner, Courtesy of Sandra Weiner; (bottom right): Don Cravens; Page 88: Courtesy of T.M. Alexander.

  Chapter Four

  Page 90: UPI/Bettmann Newsphotos; Page 92: The New York Times; Page 93: UPI/Bettmann Newsphotos; Page 94: UPI/Bettmann Newsphotos; Page 95: AP/Wide World; Page 98 (top): UPI/Bettmann Newsphotos; (bottom): Arkansas Gazette: Page 101: UPI/Bettmann Newsphotos; Page 102: Arkansas Gazette; Page 103: UPI/Bettmann Newsphotos; Page 105: AP/Wide World; Page 111 (top): Thomas McAvoy, Life Magazine, ©Time, Inc.; (center): Burt Glinn/Magnum Photos, Inc.: (bottom left): AP/Wide World; Page 113: UPI/Bettmann Newsphotos; Page 117: Courtesy of Louisianna University Press; Page 118: AP/Wide World.