20. ORN, 1, 12: 821; Wise interviews.
21. “State of South Carolina—Charleston District,” Charleston Courier, October 6, 1856; Charleston Mercury, March 3, 1860; “The National Crisis,” Charleston Courier, January 12, 1861.
22. “The National Crisis.”
23. David Detzer, Allegiance: Fort Sumter, Charleston, and the Beginning of the Civil War (San Diego: Harcourt, 2001), 153–59.
24. ORN, 1, 12: 825.
25. “Capt. Robert Smalls Addresses the General Conference of 1864, Daniel A. Payne, Presiding,” The A.M.E. Church Review 70 (1955): 23.
26. “A Strike for Freedom,” Detroit Free Press, December 17, 1893.
27. “Report to Accompany S.1313”; William Morrison and Samuel Chisholm, 1870 Census, Beaufort, South Carolina, roll M593_1485, p. 4A, image 315848, FHL Film 552984, Ancestry.com.
28. “The Steamer ‘Planter’ and Her Captor.”
29. “A Strike for Freedom.”
30. ORN, 1, 12:825–26.
31. Samuel F. Du Pont, The Blockade: 1862–1863, vol. 2 of Samuel Francis Du Pont: A Selection from His Civil War Letters, ed. John D. Hayes (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1969), 23.
32. Ibid., 51.
33. “A Strike for Freedom.”
34. Ibid.
35. ORN, 1, 12: 823–25; Hannah Smalls, 1870 Census, Beaufort, South Carolina, Roll: M593_1485, p.: 22A, image 47, FHL Film 552984, Ancestry.com.
36. “Married,” Free South, April 9, 1864.
37. “A Strike for Freedom.”
38. “The Freed Blacks of South Carolina,” The Liberator, August 8, 1862.
39. “The Running Off of the Steamer Planter.”
40. “Report to Accompany S.1313.”
41. “The Steamer Planter.”
42. “A Strike for Freedom”; “A Rebel Steamer Run Away With,” Philadelphia Inquirer, May 19, 1862.
43. “The Running Off of the Steamer.”
44. ORN, 1, 12: 821.
45. “The History of Fort Johnson,” South Carolina Department of Natural Resources, http://www.dnr.sc.gov/marine/mrri/ftjohnson.html, accessed January 4, 2016.
46. “A Strike for Freedom.”
47. Ibid.
48. Wise interviews; James D. Spirek “The Archaeology of Civil War Operations in Charleston Harbor, 1861–1865,” Scholar Commons, November 1, 2012, http://scholarcommons.sc.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1218&context=sciaa_staffpub, accessed June 10, 2016; James D. Spirek, e-mail to author, June 20, 2016. Scholar Commons is a publication of the South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology.
49. “A Strike for Freedom.”
50. ORA, 1, 14: 15.
51. “A Rebel Steamer Run Away With.”
52. “A Strike for Freedom.”
53. “Charleston and Savannah: The Points of Operation of the Stone Fleet,” New York Times, December 10, 1861; “A Strike for Freedom.”
54. James M. Guthrie, Camp-Fires of the Afro-American (Philadelphia: Afro-American, 1899), 312.
55. “Steal and Steam,” Civil War Trust, http://www.civilwar.org/education/history/navy-hub/navy-history/steel-steam.html, accessed February 23, 2016.
56. ORN, 1, 12: 822; “Photo Record: John Frederick Nickels,” Penobscot Marine Museum, http://penobscotmarinemuseum.pastperfectonline.com/photo/4EAE76EB-D714-4CEC-877A-983022987924, accessed November 24, 2015.
57. Guthrie, Camp-Fires of the Afro-American, 312.
58. ORN, 1, 12: 822.
59. “Bob Smalls,” Cincinnati Daily Times, July 28, 1876.
60. ORN, 1, 12: 821.
61. Guthrie, Camp-Fires of the Afro-American, 313.
Chapter 2: South Carolina’s Son
1. Edward A. Miller, Jr., Gullah Statesman: Robert Smalls from Slavery to Congress, 1839–1915 (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1995), 7.
2. Alexia Jones Helsley, Beaufort, South Carolina: A History (Charleston, SC: History Press, 2005), 29–31; “Beaufort,” Beaufort, South Carolina, http://www.cityofbeaufort.org, accessed December 10, 2015.
3. Helsley, Beaufort, South Carolina, 68–78; Lawrence Rowland, Alexander Moore, and George C. Rodgers, Jr., The History of Beaufort County, South Carolina, Volume 1: 1514–1861 (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1996), 292.
4. “Denmark Vesey,” PBS.org, http://www.pbs.org/thisfarbyfaith/people/denmark_vesey.html, accessed September 30, 2016; “Denmark Vesey,” Encyclopaedia Britannica, https://www.britannica.com/biography/Denmark-Vesey, accessed September 30, 2016.
5. “A Rebellion to Remember: The Legacy of Nat Turner,” Documenting the American South, http://docsouth.unc.edu/highlights/turner.html, accessed September 30, 2016; “Nat Turner’s Rebellion,” PBS.org, http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part3/3p1518.html, accessed March 13, 2016.
6. Rowland, Moore, and Rodgers, History of Beaufort County, 1:283.
7. “Eli Whitney’s Cotton Gin,” PBS.org, http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part3/3h1522.html, accessed September 5, 2016.
8. Rowland, Moore, and Rodgers, History of Beaufort County, 1:348.
9. Ibid.
10. “Tabby,” Georgia Encyclopedia, http://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/articles/history-archaeology/tabby, accessed January 15, 2016.
11. Stephen R. Wise and Lawrence S. Rowland with Gerhard Spieler, Rebellion, Reconstruction, and Redemption, 1861–1893, vol. 2 of The History of Beaufort County, South Carolina (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2015), 1.
12. “African-American Heritage and Ethnography,” National Park Service, https://www.nps.gov/ethnography/aah/aaheritage/lowCountry_furthRdg5.htm, accessed February 10, 2016.
13. “Inscriptions from St. Helena Churchyard,” The South Carolina Historical and Genealogical Magazine 32, no. 3 (July 1931): 233.
14. “David McKee’s Will,” Wills and Miscellaneous Probate Records, 1671–1868, Charleston County, Ancestry.com.
15. For the slave count see 1810 Census, St. Helena, Beaufort, South Carolina, Roll 60, p. 261, image 00143, FHL Film 0181419, Ancestry.com.
16. David J. McCord, The Statutes at Large of South Carolina (Columbia: A. S. Johnston, 1840), 274.
17. William A. Ellis, Roster of the Graduates and Past Cadets of Norwich University, the Military College of the State of Vermont, 1819–1907 (Bradford, VT: Opinion Press, 1907), 65.
18. “Inscriptions from St. Helena Churchyard.”
19. The 1870 census lists Lydia’s age as seventy-four, making her birth year about 1796.
20. E. L. Pierce, The Negroes of Port Royal: Report of E. L. Pierce, Government Agent to the Hon. Salmon P. Chase, Secretary of the Treasury (Boston: R. F. Wallcut, 1862), 7; Dr. Stephen Wise, e-mail to author, October 5, 2016.
21. Pierce, Negroes of Port Royal, 22–23; Dr. Lawrence Rowland, e-mail to author, September 18, 2016; Rowland, Moore, and Rodgers, History of Beaufort County, 1:353–65.
22. Rowland e-mail; Rowland, Moore, and Rodgers, History of Beaufort County, 1:350.
23. Moore interviews.
24. Dr. Bernard Powers, e-mail to author, September 20, 2016; Dr. Lawrence Rowland interviews; Rowland, Moore, and Rodgers, History of Beaufort County, 1:359, 363.
25. Rowland interviews; Rowland, Moore, and Rodgers, History of Beaufort County, 1:351.
26. Rowland interviews; Rowland, Moore, and Rodgers, The History of Beaufort County, 1:363.
27. Pierce, The Negroes of Port Royal, 5–10.
28. Rowland interviews; Rowland, Moore, and Rodgers, The History of Beaufort County, 1:361–62.
29. Lloyd Duhaime, “1740 Slave Code of South Carolina,”Duhaime.org, http://www.duhaime.org/LawMuseum/LawArticle-1494/1740-Slave-Code-
of-South-Carolina.aspx, accessed October 10, 2016.
30. John W. Blassingame, ed., Slave Testimony: Two Centuries of Letters, Speeches, Interviews, and Autobiographies (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1977), 380–81; “Slave Collar,” Smithsonian Institution, http://www.civilwar.si.edu/slavery_collar.html, accessed October 10, 2016.
31. Moore interviews.
32. Rowland e-mail; Rowland, Moore, and Rodgers, The History of Beaufort County, 1:363.
33. Rowland interviews; Rowland, Moore, and Rodgers, The History of Beaufort County, 1:364.
34. Rowland and Wise interviews.
35. Moore interviews.
36. Hannah Smalls, 1870 Census, Beaufort, South Carolina, Roll: M593_1485, p.: 22A, image 47, FHL Film 552984, Ancestry.com.
37. “Inscriptions from St. Helena Churchyard,” 233.
38. Blassingame, Slave Testimony, 373.
39. Moore interviews.
40. “Conditions of Antebellum Slavery,” PBS.org, http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part4/4p2956.html, accessed January 4, 2016.
41. W. B. McKee to Wade Hampton, no date, Records of Governor Wade Hampton III, Letters Received and Sent, 1876–78, S 519009, box 14, folder 14, South Carolina Department of Archives and History, Columbia.
42. Moore interviews.
43. Blassingame, Slave Testimony, 379.
44. Dennis Cannady, e-mail to author, April 15, 2016; DeTreville v. Smalls, 98 U.S. 517 (1878).
45. Charles Cowley, The Romance of History in “the Black County,” and the Romance of War in the Career of Gen. Robert Smalls, “The Hero of the Planter” (Lowell, MA, 1882), 9.
46. Wise interviews.
47. “History,” The Old Exchange and Provost Dungeon, http://oldexchange.org/history/, accessed February 2, 2016.
48. “Old Slave Mart Museum,” Charleston, South Carolina, http://www.charleston-sc.gov/index.aspx?nid=160, accessed February 2, 2016.
49. Frederick A. Ford, Census of the City of Charleston, South Carolina, for the Year 1861 (Charleston, SC: Steam-power Presses of Evans & Cogswell, 1861), 8.
50. “African Passages,” National Park Service, https://www.nps.gov/fosu/planyourvisit/upload/African_Passages.pdf, accessed February 18, 2016.
51. Bernard E. Powers, Jr., Black Charlestonians: A Social History: 1822–1885 (Fayetteville: University of Arkansas, 1994), 15–17.
52. “Magazine Street,” Charleston County Public Library, http://sites.slicker.com/ccpl/content.asp?id=15674&action=detail&catID=6025&parentID=5747, accessed February 19, 2016; Mark R. Jones, Wicked Charleston: The Dark Side of the Holy City (Charleston, SC: History Press, 2005).
53. Angelina Grimké, The Public Years of Sarah and Angelina Grimké: Selected Writings: 1835–1839, ed. Larry Ceplair (New York: Columbia University Press, 1989), 341.
54. Harlan Greene, Harry S. Hutchins, and Brian E. Hutchins, Slave Badges and the Slave Hire System in Charleston, South Carolina, 1783–1865 (Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2004); Victoria Dawson, “Copper Neck Tags Evoke the Experience of American Slaves Hired Out as Part-Time Laborers,” Smithsonian Magazine, February 2003.
55. Powers, Black Charlestonians, 38–39.
56. Cowley, The Romance of History in “the Black County,” 9.
57. “About Charleston Gas Light,” Charleston Gas Light, http://charlestongaslight.com/html/about_cgl.php, accessed December 14, 2016.
58. Michael D. Thompson, Working on the Dock of the Bay: Labor and Enterprise in an Antebellum Southern Port (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2015), 104–107.
59. Cowley, The Romance of History in “the Black County,” 9.
60. Blassingame, Slave Testimony, 374–75.
61. Charleston District, South Carolina Estate Inventories and Selected Bills of Sale, 1732–72, South Carolina Department of Archives and History, Columbia.
62. Moore interviews. Edward A. Miller, Jr., Gullah Statesman, 8–9.
63. “The Slave Experience of the Holiday,” Documenting the American South, http://docsouth.unc.edu/highlights/holidays.html, accessed September 10, 2016.
64. Moore interviews.
65. Edward A. Miller, Jr., Gullah Statesman, 8–9.
Chapter 3: In the Service of the Confederacy
1. “United States Presidential Election of 1860,” Encyclopaedia Britannica, https://www.britannica.com/event/United-States-presidential-election-of-1860, accessed December 5, 2016; Dr. Stephen Wise interviews.
2. “Fort Sumter,” Civil War Trust, http://www.civilwar.org/battlefields/fort-sumter.html?tab=facts, accessed December 10, 2015.
3. Citadel Alumni Association History Committee, “Brief History of The Citadel,” The Citadel, http://www.citadel.edu/root/brief-history, accessed October 10, 2016.
4. E. Milbury Burton, The Siege of Charleston, 1861–1865 (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1970), 1–60.
5. Harper’s Weekly, May 4, 1861.
6. “Bombardment of Fort Sumter!” Charleston Mercury, April 13, 1861.
7. “Died,” Pacific Appeal, August 1, 1863; “Claims of Samuel Kingman for Hannah, Clara, Elizabeth, and Beauregard Smalls, the wife and children of Robert Smalls,” November 1862 and April 1862, Claims of Property Loss Due to the Enemy, 1862–64, S 126189, State Auditor, Office of the Comptroller General, South Carolina Department of Archives and History, Columbia.
8. Ernest B. Furgurson, “The Battle of Bull Run: The End of Illusions,” Smithsonian Magazine, August 2011; “Bull Run,” Civil War Trust, http://www.civilwar.org/battlefields/bullrun.html?tab=facts, accessed March 4, 2016.
9. Eric Foner, The Fiery Trial: Abraham Lincoln and American Slavery (New York: W. W. Norton, 2010), 175; Matthew Pinsker, “Congressional Confiscation Acts,” Emancipation Digital Classroom, July 14, 2012, http://housedivided.dickinson.edu/sites/emancipation/2012/07/14/congressional-confiscation-acts/, accessed February 2, 2016.
10. Adam Goodheart, “How Slavery Really Ended in America,” The New York Times Magazine, April 1, 2011.
11. “First Inaugural Address of Abraham Lincoln,” The Avalon Project, Yale Law School, http://avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/lincoln1.asp, accessed July 30, 2016.
12. Montgomery Advertiser, November 6, 1861; Douglass’ Monthly, July 1861.
13. Private and Official Correspondence of Gen. Benjamin F. Butler During the Period of the Civil War (Norwood, MA: Plimpton Press, 1917), 1:119.
14. Wise interviews; Dr. Bernard Powers, e-mail to author, September 20, 2016.
15. Lawrence Rowland, Alexander Moore, and George C. Rodgers, Jr., The History of Beaufort County, South Carolina, Volume 1: 1514–1861 (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1996), 447.
16. Stephen R. Wise and Lawrence S. Rowland with Gerhard Spieler, Rebellion, Reconstruction, and Redemption, 1861–1893, vol. 2 of The History of Beaufort County, South Carolina (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2015), 18.
17. Rowland, Moore, and Rodgers, History of Beaufort County, 1: 447.
18. “Capt. DuPont’s Official Reports,” New York Times, November 14, 1861.
19. Rowland, Moore, and Rodgers, History of Beaufort County, 1:448, 450.
20. Wise and Rowland, Rebellion, Reconstruction, and Redemption, 15.
21. Rowland, Moore, and Rodgers, History of Beaufort County, 1:451–54.
22. Ibid., 1:455.
23. “Capt. DuPont’s Official Reports.”
24. Rowland, Moore, and Rodgers, History of Beaufort County, 1:456.
25. “Our Port Royal Correspondence,” New York Times, December 20, 1861.
26. Wise and Rowland, Rebellion, Reconstruction, and Redemption, 28.
27. Rowland, Moore, and Rod
gers, History of Beaufort County, 1:456.
28. ORA, 1, 6: 29.
29. Alexia Jones Helsley, Beaufort, South Carolina: A History (Charleston, SC: History Press, 2005), 100; Rowland, Moore, and Rodgers, History of Beaufort County, 1:456.
30. “Our Port Royal Correspondence.”
Be Free or Die--The Amazing Story of Robert Smalls' Escape from Slavery to Union Hero Page 23