Lenin, Stalin, and Hitler
Page 71
44. See Johnpeter Horst Grill, The Nazi Movement in Baden, 1920–1945 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1983), 212-14.
45. See Franz von Papen, Memoirs (London, 1952), 200; Hitler: Reden, Schriften, vol. 5, part 1, 317-20; Kershaw, Hitler, 1889-1936, 381–83.
CHAPTER 13: “ALL POWER” FOR HITLER
1. Elke Fröhlich et al., eds., Die Tagebücher von Joseph Goebbels (Munich, 2005ff.), part 1, vol. 2, part 2, 333.
2. Heinrich August Winkler, Weimar, 1918-1933: Die Geschichte der ersten deutschen Demokratie (Munich, 1998), 508-9.
3. Aug. 7, 1932, entry, in Tagebücher von Goebbels, part 1, vol. 2, part 2, 334-35.
4. Winkler, Weimar, 509.
5. See Franz von Papen, Memoirs (London, 1952), 195-98.
6. Winkler, Weimar, 511–12; Papen, Memoirs, 210–11.
7. See Papen, Memoirs, 208-9.
8. Sept. 7, 1932, speech, in Hitler: Reden, Schriften, vol. 5, part 1, 341; also Oct. 16, speech, in vol. 5, part 2, 58.
9. Hans Mommsen, Die verspielte Freiheit: Der Weg der Republik von Weimar in den Untergang, 1918 bis 1933 (Frankfurt am Main, 1989), 308-9.
10. See Oded Heilbronner, Catholicism, Political Culture, and the Countryside: A Social History of the Nazi Party in South Germany (Ann Arbor, Mich., 1998), 236, 127; for remarks on anti-Semitism, see 135-38. His quantitative analysis of words used by Nazi speakers in the Reichstag elections of 1930 (table 8, p. 126) shows that the word “Jews” was mentioned only six times. But far from indicating the lack of importance of anti-Semitism, this minute approach reveals that practically half the words used were synonyms or code words for Jews.
11. See Anthony Kauders, German Politics and the Jews: Düsseldorf and Nuremberg, 1910–1933 (Oxford, 1996), 182-91.
12. Theodore Abel, Why Hitler Came to Power (repr., Cambridge, Mass., 1986), 164.
13. This latter poster is not included among the eighty-seven in Gerhard Paul, Aufstand der Bilder: Die NS-Propaganda vor 1933 (Bonn, 1992).
14. Ulrich Herbert, Best: Biographische Studien über Radikalismus, Weltanschauung, und Vernunft, 1903-1989 (Bonn, 1996), 108-9.
15. Richard Bessel, Political Violence and the Rise of Nazism: The Storm Troopers in Eastern Germany, 1925-1934 (New Haven, Conn., 1984), 89.
16. Sven Reichardt, Faschistische Kampfbünde: Gewalt und Gemeinschaft im italienischen Squadrismus und in der deutschen SA (Cologne, 2002), 631–43.
17. See Dirk Walter, Antisemitische Kriminalität und Gewalt: Judenfeindschaft in der Weimarer Republik (Bonn, 1999), 200–56.
18. Hitler: Reden, Schriften, vol. 5, part 2, 130–31.
19. Nov. 3, 1932, speech, in ibid., 170.
20. Nov. 5, 1932, speech, in ibid., 181–82.
21. Hitler: Reden, Schriften, vol. 3, part 3, 445.
22. Ibid., 448-49.
23. See Klaus-Michael Mallmann, Kommunisten in der Weimarer Republik: Sozialgeschichte einer revolutionären Bewegung (Darmstadt, 1996), 87.
24. Hitler: Reden, Schriften, vol. 5, part 2, 297-311.
25. Nov. 6, 1932, entry, in Elke Fröhlich et al., eds., Die Tagebücher von Joseph Goebbels (Munich, 1987), vol. 2, 272.
26. Udo Kissenkoetter, Gregor Strasser und die NSDAP (Stuttgart, 1978), 162-71.
27. Ernst Hanfstaengl, Hitler: The Missing Years (1957; New York, 1994), 181.
28. Nov. 22-25, 1932, entries, in Tagebücher von Goebbels, vol. 2, 283-85.
29. Kissenkoetter, Strasser, 171–73; Hanfstaengl, Hitler, 190; Papen, Memoirs, 216-17.
30. Cited in his brother’s account: Otto Strasser, In My Time (London, 1941), 243.
31. Papen, Memoirs, 225-31; Ian Kershaw, Hitler, 1889-1936: Hubris (London, 1998), 392-93, 414; Henry Ashby Turner Jr., German Big Business and the Rise of Hitler (New York, 1985), 314-17; Winkler, Weimar, 567-69.
32. Hitler: Reden, Schriften, vol. 4, part 3, 74-110.
33. Winkler, Weimar, 573-74; Turner, German Big Business, 318-19; Kershaw, Hitler, 1889-1936, 416-17.
34. For the detailed negotiations, see Papen, Memoirs, 236-40; Winkler, Weimar, 575-94; Kershaw, Hitler, 1889-1936, 417-23.
35. Cited in Winkler, Weimar, 592-93; see also Papen, Memoirs, 241–44.
36. Hitler: Reden, Schriften, vol. 5, part 2, 391–93.
37. Cited in Karl Dietrich Bracher, Die deutsche Diktatur: Entstehung, Struktur, Folgen des Nationalsozialismus, 2nd ed. (Cologne, 1969), 213.
38. Richard Overy, Goering: The “Iron Man” (London, 1984), 22.
39. Jan. 30, 1933, entry, in Tagebücher von Goebbels, vol. 2, 357-61.
40. Papen, Memoirs, 264.
41. Karl Dietrich Bracher, The German Dictatorship: The Origins, Structure, and Effects of National Socialism (Harmondsworth, U.K., 1970), 243-52.
CHAPTER 14: FIGHT AGAINST THE COUNTRYSIDE
1. Nicolas Werth, “A State Against Its People: Violence, Repression, and Terror in the Soviet Union,” in Stéphane Courtois et al., The Black Book of Communism (Cambridge, Mass., 1999), 155.
2. R. W. Davies et al., eds., The Stalin-Kaganovich Correspondence, 1931–36 (New Haven, Conn., 2003), 6; for the total, see Sheila Fitzpatrick, Stalin’s Peasants: Resistance and Survival in the Russian Village After Collectivization (New York, 1994), 82.
3. See table in Alec Nove, An Economic History of the USSR (Harmondsworth, U.K., 1990), 161.
4. Elena Osokina, Our Daily Bread: Socialist Distribution and the Art of Survival in Stalin’s Russia, 1927-1941 (New York, 2001), 61.
5. See table in Nove, Economic History, 163.
6. Davies et al., Stalin-Kaganovich Correspondence, 137 n. 5.
7. Stalin letter, June 18, 1932, in ibid., 138-39.
8. Letters of July 25 and Aug. 5, 1932, in ibid., 167-68, 177-78.
9. Stalin to Kaganovich, July 20, 1932, in ibid., 164-65.
10. Peter H. Solomon, Soviet Criminal Justice Under Stalin (Cambridge, U.K., 1996), 126.
11. Letter in Davies et al., Stalin-Kaganovich Correspondence, 179-81.
12. Werth,“State Against Its People,” 162-63.
13. Cited in Nove, Economic History, 169.
14. Lev Kopelev, The Education of a True Believer (New York, 1980), 226.
15. Ibid., 235.
16. Ibid., 250–51.
17. Victor A. Kravchenko, I Chose Freedom (1946; New Brunswick, N.J., 2002), 111.
18. Stephen G. Wheatcroft, “More Light on the Scale of Repression and Excess Mortality in the Soviet Union in the 1930s,” in J. Arch Getty and Roberta T. Manning, eds., Stalinist Terror: New Perspectives (New York, 1993), 282-86.
19. See Gijs Kessler, “The Passport System and State Control over Population Flows in the Soviet Union, 1932-1940,” Cahiers du monde russe (April-Dec. 2001), 483-84.
20. Werth, “State Against Its People,” 164.
21. Miron Dolot, Execution by Hunger: The Hidden Holocaust (New York, 1985), 180.
22. Ibid., 229.
23. Vasily Grossman, Forever Flowing (New York, 1972), 164-65, as cited in Robert Conquest, Harvest of Sorrow: Soviet Collectivization and the Terror-Famine (New York, 1986), 256-57.
24. See, for example, in Kravchenko, I Chose Freedom, 128.
25. Conquest, Harvest of Sorrow, 257-58.
26. Stalin to Kaganovich, June 7, 1932, in Davies et al., Stalin-Kaganovich Correspondence, 124.
27. Cited in Werth, “State Against Its People,” 165-67.
28. R. W. Davies and Stephen G. Wheatcroft, “The Soviet Famine of 1932-33 and the Crisis in Agriculture,” in Stephen G. Wheatcroft, ed., Challenging Traditional Views of Russian History (London, 2002), 84, 86.
29. Table 48 in R. W. Davies, Mark Harrison, and Stephen G. Wheatcroft, eds., The Economic Transformation of the Soviet Union, 1913-1945 (Cambridge, U.K., 1994), 316.
30. Alec Nove,“Victims of Stalinism: How Many?” in Getty and Manning, Stalinist Terror, 262.
31. Wheatcroft, “More Light on the Scale of Repression,” 275-90.
32. Werth, “State Against Its People,” 167.
33. Conquest, Harvest of Sorrow, 306.
34. Stephen G. Wheatcroft and R. W. Davies, “Population,” in Davies, Harrison, and Wheatcroft, Economic Transformation, 57-80; for a summary, see Manfred Hildermeier, Geschichte der Sowjetunion, 1917-1991 (Munich, 1998), 398-401.
35. See Stalin to Kaganovich, Aug. 5, 1932, in Davies et al., Stalin-Kaganovich Correspondence, 175-77.
36. Merle Fainsod, Smolensk Under Soviet Rule (New York, 1963), 280–93; for the production, see Paul R. Gregory, The Political Economy of Stalinism: Evidence from the Soviet Secret Archives (New York, 2004), 39.
37. In the 1990s the peasants even resisted “de-collectivization.” Lynne Viola, Peasant Rebels Under Stalin: Collectivization and the Culture of Peasant Resistance (New York, 1996), 239-40.
38. Fitzpatrick, Stalin’s Peasants, 291–96.
39. Andrea Graziosi, The Great Soviet Peasant War: Bolsheviks and Peasants, 1917-1933 (Cambridge, Mass., 1996), 70.
40. Doc. 23, in J. Arch Getty and Oleg V. Naumov, eds., The Road to Terror: Stalin and the Self-Destruction of the Bolsheviks, 1932-1939 (New Haven, Conn., 1999), 121.
41. See Kravchenko, I Chose Freedom, 170.
42. The decree was publicized in Khrushchev’s secret 1956 speech. See Strobe Talbott, ed., Khrushchev Remembers (Boston, 1970), app. 4, 574.
43. For Yezhov’s rise, see Marc Jansen and Nikita Petrov, Stalin’s Loyal Executioner: People’s Commissar Nikolai Ezhov (Stanford, Calif., 2002), 21–51; for his appointment, see Davies et al., Stalin-Kaganovich Correspondence, 359-60.
44. See, for example, Kopelev, Education of a True Believer, 299-300.
CHAPTER 15: TERROR AS POLITICAL PRACTICE
1. Lev Kopelev, The Education of a True Believer (New York, 1980), 258.
2. David R. Shearer, “Social Disorder, Mass Repression, and the NKVD During the 1930s,” Cahiers du monde russe (2001), 519.
3. Gijs Kessler, “The Passport System and State Control over Population Flows in the Soviet Union, 1932-1940,” Cahiers du monde russe (April-Dec. 2001), 484.
4. Golfo Alexopoulos, Stalin’s Outcasts: Aliens, Citizens, and the Soviet State, 1926-1936 (Ithaca, N.Y., 2003), 58.
5. Cited in ibid., 76.
6. Stalin, Sochineniia, vol. 13, 207, 210 (Jan. 7, 1933), report.
7. Kessler, “Passport System and State Control,” 485-95.
8. S. V. Mironenko and N. Werth, eds., Istoria stalinskogo Gulaga (Moscow, 2004) vol. 1, 156-57; Shearer, “Social Disorder,” 520–21.
9. Paul M. Hagenloh, “‘Socially Harmful Elements’ and the Great Terror,” in Sheila Fitzpatrick, ed., Stalinism: New Directions (New York, 2000), 288-90.
10. Ibid., 287.
11. See the diary of Stepan Podlubny in Jochen Hellbeck, ed., Tagebuch aus Moskau, 1931–1939 (Munich, 1996), 237-57.
12. Shearer, “Social Disorder,” 524, 526.
13. Nicolas Werth, “A State Against Its People: Violence, Repression, and Terror in the Soviet Union,” in Stéphane Courtois et al., The Black Book of Communism (Cambridge, Mass., 1999), 177-78.
14. Doc. 58, in Mironenko and Werth, Istoria stalinskogo Gulaga, vol. 1, 268-75.
15. Oleg V. Khlevniuk, The History of the Gulag: From Collectivization to the Great Terror (New Haven, Conn., 2004), 170.
16. Marc Jansen and Nikita Petrov, Stalin’s Loyal Executioner: People’s Commissar Nikolai Ezhov (Stanford, Calif., 2002), 92-93.
17. Cited in ibid., 89.
18. Nicolas Werth, “The Mechanism of a Mass Crime: The Great Terror in the Soviet Union, 1937-1938,” in Robert Gellately and Ben Kiernan, eds., The Specter of Genocide: Mass Murder in Historical Perspective (Cambridge, U.K., 2003), 229.
19. Doc. 182, in J. Arch Getty and Oleg V. Naumov, eds., The Road to Terror: Stalin and the Self-Destruction of the Bolsheviks, 1932-1939 (New Haven, Conn., 1999), 519.
20. Barry McLoughlin, “Mass Operations of the NKVD, 1937-8: A Survey,” in Barry McLoughlin and Kevin McDermott, eds., Stalin’s Terror: High Politics and Mass Repression in the Soviet Union (New York, 2003), 129.
21. Cited in Khlevniuk, History of the Gulag, 171.
22. David Nordlander, “Magadan and the Economic History of Dalstroi in the 1930s,” in Paul R. Gregory and Valery Lazarev, eds., The Economics of Forced Labor: The Soviet Gulag (Stanford, Calif., 2003), 105-25.
23. McLoughlin, “Mass Operations,” 129-30.
24. Werth, “Mechanism of a Mass Crime,” 231. The town was Ulan-Ude.
25. Khlevniuk, History of the Gulag, 170; figures in Jansen and Petrov, Ezhov, 91.
26. Werth, “Mechanism of a Mass Crime,” 231.
27. Doc. 83, in Lewis Siegelbaum and Andrei Sokolov, Stalinism as a Way of Life: A Narrative in Documents (New Haven, Conn., 2000), 237-38.
28. McLoughlin, “Mass Operations,” 136.
29. See Gábor Tamás Rittersporn, Stalinist Simplifications and Soviet Complications: Social Tensions and Political Conflicts in the USSR, 1933-1953 (Chur, Switzerland, 1991), 244-55.
30. Sarah Davies, Popular Opinion in Stalin’s Russia: Terror, Propaganda, and Dissent (New York, 1997), 121, 123.
31. William B. Husband, “Godless Communists”: Atheism and Society in Soviet Russia, 1917-1932 (DeKalb, Ill., 2000), 47-49.
32. See Steven Merritt Minor, Stalin’s Holy War: Religion, Nationalism, and Alliance Politics, 1941–1945 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 2003), 20–22.
33. Lenin in Richard Pipes, ed., The Unknown Lenin: From the Secret Archive (New Haven, Conn., 1996), 152-55.
34. Donald Rayfield, Stalin and His Hangmen: The Tyrant and Those Who Killed for Him (New York, 2004), 126-28.
35. Timothy J. Colton, Moscow: Governing the Socialist Metropolis (Cambridge, Mass., 1995), 228.
36. David J. Dallin and Boris 1. Nicolaevsky, Forced Labor in Soviet Russia (New Haven, Conn., 1947), 182-83.
37. Husband, “Godless Communists,” 37.
38. Sheila Fitzpatrick, Stalin’s Peasants: Resistance and Survival in the Russian Village After Collectivization (New York, 1994), 204.
39. Cited in Werth, “State Against Its People,” 200.
40. Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, The Gulag Archipelago, 1918-1956 (New York, 1973), vol. 1, 42-43.
41. Feliks Ivanovich Chuev and Vyacheslav Molotov, Sto sorok besed s Molo-tovym: iz dnevnika F. Chueva (Moscow, 1991), 321, 416, 428.
CHAPTER 16: “MASS OPERATIONS”
1. Doc. 57, in S. V. Mironenko and N. Werth, eds., Istoria stalinskogo Gulaga (Moscow, 2004), vol. 1, 267-68.
2. Case in Lewis Siegelbaum and Andrei Sokolov, Stalinism as a Way of Life: A Narrative in Documents (New Haven, Conn., 2000), 234.
3. Nicolas Werth, “The Mechanism of a Mass Crime: The Great Terror in the Soviet Union, 1937-1938,” in Robert Gellately and Ben Kiernan, eds., The Specter of Genocide: Mass Murder in Historical Perspective (Cambridge, U.K., 2003), 232, also 235.
4. Cited in Marc Jansen and Nikita Petrov, Stalin’s Loyal Executioner: People’s Commissar Nikolai Ezhov (Stanford, Calif., 2002), 98.
5. Doc. 59, in Mironenko and Werth, Istoria stalinskogo Gulaga, vol. 1, 275-77.
6. Barry McLoughlin, “Mass Operations of the NKVD, 1937-8: A Survey,” in Barry McLoughlin and Kevin McDermott, eds., Stalin’s Terror: High Politics and Mass Repression in the Soviet Union (New York, 2003), 134.
7. Doc. 60, in Mironenko and Werth, Istoria stalinskogo Gulaga, vol. 1, 277-81; Jansen and Petrov, Ezhov, 96-97.
8. Nikita Petrov and Arsenii Roginskii, “The ‘Polish Operation’ of the NKVD, 1937-8,” in McLoughlin and McDermott, Stalin’s Terror, 168-69; Jansen and Petrov, Ezhov, 99; Werth, “Mechanism of a Mass Crime,” 237.
9. Werth, “Mechanism of a Mass Crime,” 235-36.
10. Figures in Jansen and Petrov, Ezhov, 99.
11. See the case of Alexander Tivoli, and his wife and son, mentioned in J. Arch Getty and Oleg V. Naumov, eds., The Road to Terror: Stalin and the Self-Destruction of the Bolsheviks, 1932-1939 (New Haven, Conn., 1999), 2-5.
12. See doc. 32, in A. B. Bezborodov and V. M. Khrustalev, eds., Istoria stalinskogo Gulaga (Moscow, 2004), vol. 4, 110.
13. Anne Applebaum, Gulag: A History (New York, 2003), 62.
14. Oleg V. Khlevniuk, The History of the Gulag: From Collectivization to the Great Terror (New Haven, Conn., 2004), 36; Timothy J. Colton, Moscow: Governing the Socialist Metropolis (Cambridge, Mass., 1995), 258.
15. Cited in Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, The Gulag Archipelago, 1918-1956 (New York, 1973), vol. 2, 105.
16. Cited in David J. Dallin and Boris 1. Nicolaevsky, Forced Labor in Soviet Russia (New Haven, Conn., 1947), 223.
17. Oleg V. Khlevniuk, “The Economy of the Gulag,” in Paul R. Gregory, ed., Behind the Fagade of Stalin’s Command Economy (Stanford, Calif., 2001), 126-28.
18. Cited in Vladimir Paperny, Architecture in the Age of Stalin: Culture Two (Cambridge, U.K., 2002), 97.
19. Kathleen Berton, Moscow: An Architectural History (New York, 1990), 202.
20. Colton, Moscow, 331–32.
21. Ibid., 263.
22. Ibid., 333.
23. Solzhenitsyn, Gulag Archipelago, vol. 2, 98.
24. Cited in Applebaum, Gulag, 44; see also Solzhenitsyn, Gulag Archipelago, vol. 2, 60–62.
25. Dallin and Nicolaevsky, Forced Labor, 189.
26. Cited in Solzhenitsyn, Gulag Archipelago, vol. 2, 85-86.
27. On these Western apologists, see François Furet, The Passing of an Illusion: The Idea of Communism in the Twentieth Century (Chicago, 1999), 153-54.
28. Applebaum, Gulag, 76-77.
29. Khlevniuk, “Economy of the Gulag,” 118.
30. Khlevniuk, History of the Gulag, 336.
31. Doc. 30, in Bezborodov and Khrustalev, Istoria stalinskogo Gulaga, vol. 4, 109.
32. Based on three years, 1934, 1937, 1940, in J. Arch Getty, Gábor Tamás Rittersporn, and Viktor N. Zemskov, “Victims of the Soviet Penal System in the Pre-war Years: A First Approach on the Basis of Archival Evidence,” AHR (1993), 1025, table 2.
33. Anton Antonov-Ovseyenko, The Time of Stalin: Portrait of a Tyranny (New York, 1981), 125.
34. Victor A. Kravchenko, I Chose Freedom (1946; New Brunswick, N.J., 2002), 284.