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Lenin, Stalin, and Hitler

Page 73

by Robert Gellately


  60. An excellent introduction is Klaus Hildebrand, The Foreign Policy of the Third Reich (Berkeley, Calif., 1973), 1–23.

  61. Cited in Wolfgang Sauer, “Die Mobilmachung der Gewalt,” in Karl Dietrich Bracher, Wolfgang Sauer, and Gerhard Schulz, Die nationalsozialistische Machtergreifung: Studien zur Errichtung des totalitären Herrschaftsystems in Deutschland, 1933-34 (Cologne, 1969), 871.

  62. Bernd Stöver, Volksgemeinschaft im Dritten Reich: Die Konsensbereitschaft der Deutschen aus der Sicht sozialistischer Exilberichte (Düsseldorf, 1993), 178.

  63. Cited in Norbert Frei, “People’s Community and War: Hitler’s Popular Support,” in Hans Mommsen, ed., The Third Reich Between Vision and Reality: New Perspectives on German History, 1918-1945 (Oxford, 2001), 63.

  64. See Gerhard Paul, “Deutsche Mutter—heim zu Dir!” Der Saarkampf, 1933 bis 1935 (Cologne, 1984), 361, for the testimony of the man released from the concentration camp to vote.

  65. Stöver, Volksgemeinschaft im Dritten Reich, 181.

  66. Sopade (1935), 279.

  67. Stöver, Volksgemeinschaft im Dritten Reich, 183.

  68. Hitler: Reden und Proklamationen, vol. 2, 638.

  69. Sept. 12, 1936, speech, in ibid., 643.

  70. Sopade (1938), 248.

  71. Ibid., 246.

  72. Heinrich August Winkler, Der lange Weg nach Westen: Deutsche Geschichte vom “Dritten Reich” bis zur Wiedervereinigung (Munich, 2000), vol. 2, 55.

  73. Sopade (1938), 940, 1062.

  74. Marlis G. Steinert, Hitler’s War and the Germans: Public Mood and Attitude During the Second World War (Athens, Ohio 1977), 40.

  CHAPTER 20: PERSECUTION OF THE JEWS IN THE PREWAR YEARS

  1. Peter Longerich, Politik der Vernichtung: Eine Gesamtdarstellung der nationalsozialistischen Judenverfolgung (Munich, 1998), 25-30.

  2. Elke Fröhlich et al., eds., Die Tagebücher von Joseph Goebbels (Munich, 1987), vol. 2, 398.

  3. Hitler: Reden und Proklamationen, vol. 1, 252-53.

  4. Sebastian Haffner, Geschichte eines Deutschen: Die Erinnerungen, 1914-1933 (Munich, 2000), 146-49.

  5. See Simone Ladwig-Winters, “The Attack on Berlin Department Stores (Warenhüser) After 1933,” in David Bankier, ed., Probing the Depths of German Anti-Semitism: German Society and the Persecution of the Jews, 1933-1941 (New York, 2000), 256.

  6. Michael Burleigh and Wolfgang Wippermann, The Racial State: Germany, 1933-1945 (Cambridge, U.K., 1991), 77-78; Ian Kershaw, Popular Opinion and Political Dissent in the Third Reich: Bavaria, 1933-1945 (Oxford, 1983), 232.

  7. April 4, 1933, entry, in Tagebücher von Goebbels, vol. 2, 402.

  8. Raul Hilberg, The Destruction of the European Jews, rev. ed. (New York, 1985), vol. 1, 87-88.

  9. NS-Stimmungungsberichte, 1933-1945, 75.

  10. See, for example, Kershaw, Popular Opinion and Political Dissent in the Third Reich, 239.

  11. Marion A. Kaplan, Between Dignity and Despair: Jewish Life in Nazi Germany (New York, 1998), 63.

  12. NS-Stimmungungsberichte, 134.

  13. Ibid., 140–42, 144, 146-48, 152.

  14. For an analysis of the social background to these laws, see Robert Gellately, The Gestapo and German Society (Oxford, 1990), 102-10.

  15. See Saul Friedländer, Nazi Germany and the Jews: The Years of Persecution, 1933-1939 (New York, 1997), 148.

  16. NS-Stimmungungsberichte, 158-70.

  17. Reinhard Rürup, ed., 1936: Die Olympischen Spiele und der Nationalsozialismus (Berlin, 1996), 53.

  18. Axel Eggebrecht, “In Berlin There Were People Who Were Willing to Help,” in Jörg Wollenberg, ed., The German Public and the Persecution of the Jews, 1933-1945 (Atlantic Highlands, N.J., 1996), 43.

  19. Jan. 1937, speech, in Hitler: Reden und Proklamationen, vol. 2, 665-77.

  20. Regensburg, in NS-Stimmungungsberichte, 220.

  21. Hitler: Reden und Proklamationen, vol. 2, 727-31.

  22. See Dan Diner, America in the Eyes of the Germans: An Essay on Anti-Americanism, trans. A. Brown (Princeton, N.J., 1996), 79-103.

  23. Philipp Gassert, Amerika im Dritten Reich: Ideologie, Propaganda, und Volksmeinung, 1933-1945 (Stuttgart, 1997), 183ff.

  24. Many examples, including the Vatican, can be seen in Beth A. GriechPolelle, Bishop von Galen, German Catholicism, and National Socialism (New Haven, Conn., 2002), 143-44.

  25. SD Hauptamt, Jan.-March 1938, in NS-Stimmungsberichte, 266.

  26. Friedländer, Nazi Germany and the Jews, 241–42.

  27. See Avraham Barkai, “Volksgemeinschaft, ‘Aryanization,’ and the Holocaust,” in David Cesarani, ed., The Final Solution: Origins and Implementation (London, 1994), 41.

  28. See Frank Bajohr, “Arisierung” in Hamburg: Die Verdrängung der jüdischen Unternehmer, 1933-1945 (Hamburg, 1997), 137, 141.

  29. David Cesarani, Becoming Eichmann: Rethinking the Life, Crimes, and Trial of a “Desk Murderer” (Cambridge, Mass., 2004), 62.

  30. Friedländer, Nazi Germany and the Jews, 243-44.

  31. VB, July 17, 1938.

  32. NS-Stimmungungsberichte, 268, 270–71, 273-74.

  33. Helmut Genschel, Die Verdrängung der Juden aus der Wirtschaft im Dritten Reich (Berlin, 1966), 175.

  34. July report, Sopade (1938), 732-71, esp. 750, 758.

  35. Hitler: Reden und Proklamationen, vol. 2, 899.

  36. NS-Stimmungungsberichte, 293-94, 297-98.

  37. See BAB R58/276; also Trude Maurer, “Abschiebung und Attentat: Die Ausweisung der polnischen Juden und der Vorward für die ‘Kristallnacht,’” in Walter H. Pehle, ed., Der Judenpogrom 1938: Von der “Reichskristallnacht” zum Völkermord (Frankfurt am Main, 1988), 52-73.

  38. NS-Stimmungungsberichte, 298; Friedländler, Nazi Germany and the Jews, 266-68.

  39. NS-Stimmungungsberichte, 356-57.

  40. Nov. report, Sopade (1938), 1177.

  41. Nov. 9, 1938, entry, in Tagebücher von Goebbels, part 1, vol. 6, 178.

  42. Nov. 10, 1938, entry, in ibid., part 1, vol. 6, 180.

  43. See Gellately, Gestapo and German Society, 112ff.

  44. Doc. 3058-PS, in IMT, vol. 32, i-2. The Nazi Party high court later estimated ninety-one Jews were killed, and this must be taken as a minimum figure.

  45. See Konrad Kwiet and Helmut Eschwege, Selbstbehauptung und Widerstand: Deutsche Juden im Kampf um Existenz und Menschenwürde, 1933-1945 (Hamburg, 1984), 199, 202. By 1944 an estimated three to four thousand German Jews had committed suicide.

  46. Heinz Lauber, Judenpogrom “Reichskristallnacht” November 1938 in Grossdeutschland (Gerlingen, 1981), 124.

  47. IMT, vol. 28, 499-540, 1816-PS, 534.

  48. NS-Stimmungungsberichte, 304-9.

  49. Ibid., 339, 341.

  50. Ibid., 315-16.

  51. Borgentreich, in ibid., 322.

  52. Ibid., 318-19, 326, 332.

  53. Ibid., 319, 328, 338.

  54. Ibid., 357, 361.

  55. Ibid., 365.

  56. Ibid., 375-76.

  57. See Daniel Jonah Goldhagen, Hitler’s Willing Executioners: Ordinary Germans and the Holocaust (New York, 1996), 103.

  58. Ruth Andreas-Friedrich, Der Schattenmann: Tagebuchaufzeichnungen, 1938-1945 (Frankfurt, 1983), 25-35; Herbert Obenaus and Sibylle Obenaus, eds., “Schreiben wie es wirklich war!” Aufzeichnungen Karl Dürke-fäldens aus den Jahren, 1933-1945 (Hanover, 1985), 85-102.

  59. Feb. report, Sopade (1939), 201–2; Sopade (April 1940), 256-68.

  60. David Bankier, The Germans and the Final Solution: Public Opinion Under Nazism (Oxford, 1992), 86-87.

  61. Feb. report, Sopade (1939), 201–2; Sopade (April 1940), 256-68.

  62. Hitler: Reden und Proklamationen, vol. 3, 1047-67.

  CHAPTER 21: “CLEANSING” THE GERMAN BODY POLITIC

  1. Stefan Kühl, The Nazi Connection: Eugenics, American Racism, and German National Socialism (New York, 1994), 24.

  2. See Mark B. Adams, “Eugenics in Russia, 1900–1940,” in Mark B. Adams, ed., The
Wellborn Science: Eugenics in Germany, France, Brazil, and Russia (Oxford, 1990), 153-216, also for what follows. Muller was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1946 for his work in genetics.

  3. Ibid., 197.

  4. The best introduction remains George L. Mosse, Toward the Final Solution: A History of European Racism (New York, 1978), 72-75. See also Robert N. Proctor, Racial Hygiene: Medicine Under the Nazis (Cambridge, Mass., 1988), 14-38.

  5. Adolf Hitler, Mein Kampf (Munich, 1943), 279-80.

  6. Aug. 4, 1929, speech, in Hitler: Reden, Schriften, vol. 3, part 2, 348-49.

  7. Henry Friedlander, The Origins of Nazi Genocide: From Euthanasia to the Final Solution (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1995), 23.

  8. Kühl, Nazi Connection, 39, 88.

  9. Gisela Bock, Zwangssterilisation im Nationalsozialismus: Studien zur Rassenpolitik und Frauenpolitik (Opladen, 1986), 230–38.

  10. Richard F. Wetzell, Inventing the Criminal: A History of German Criminology, 1880–1945 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 2000), 262-63.

  11. Ibid., 269-70.

  12. Proctor, Racial Hygiene, 203.

  13. Cited in Kühl, Nazi Connection, 46.

  14. See Gabriele Czarnowski, “The Value of Marriage for the ‘Volksgemeinschaft’: Policies Towards Women and Marriage Under National Socialism,” in Richard Bessel, ed., Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany: Comparisons and Contrasts (Cambridge, U.K., 1996), 94-112.

  15. Cited in Tim Mason, Nazism, Fascism, and the Working Class, ed. Jane Caplan (Cambridge, U.K., 1995), 162, 172-73.

  16. The professional criminal (Berufsverbrecher) was defined as someone who made crime his business and who lived in part or whole from the gains of his crimes; the professional criminal was sentenced at least three times for a minimum of three months. The repeat offender (Gewohnheitsverbrecher) was not a professional but, urged on by a criminal drive and predisposition (Treiben oder Neigungen), had a similar record.

  17. Wolfgang Ayaß, “Asoziale” im Nationalsozialismus (Stuttgart, 1995), 143.

  18. See Michael Wildt, ed., Die Judenpolitik des SD, 1935 bis 1938: Eine Dokumentation (Munich, 1995), 56.

  19. RKPAVE: RKPA an Kripostellen, Sept. 1, 1938.

  20. See Jan Erik Schulte, Zwangsarbeit und Vernichtung: Das Wirstschaftsimperium der SS: Oswald Pohl und das SS-Wirtschafts-Verwaltungshauptamt, 1933-1945 (Paderborn, 2001), 103-19.

  21. See Michael Thad Allen, The SS, Slave Labor, and the Concentration Camps (Chapel Hill, N.C., 2002), 58-59.

  22. Hitler, Mein Kampf, 269-78.

  23. David F. Crew, Germans on Welfare: From Weimar to Hitler (New York, 1998), 150–51.

  24. Brigitte Hamann, Hitler’s Vienna: A Dictator’s Apprenticeship (New York, 1999), 362.

  25. See the 1937 speech of Dr. Josef Meisinger in Noakes and Pridham, vol. 4, 391; also Claudia Schoppmann, “National Socialist Policies Towards Female Homosexuality,” in Lynn Abrams and Elizabeth Harvey, eds., Gender Relations in German History: Power, Agency, and Experience from the Sixteenth to the Twentieth Century (Durham, N.C., 1997), 177-87.

  26. Günter Grau, ed., Homosexualität in der NS-Zeit: Dokumente einer Diskriminierung und Verfolgung (Frankfurt am Main, 1993), 197.

  27. Sybil Milton, “Vorstufe der Vernichtung: Die Zigeunerlager nach 1933,” Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte (1995), 115-30.

  28. Michael Zimmermann, Rassenutopie und Genozid: Die nationalsozialistische “Lösung der Zigeunerfrage” (Hamburg, 1996), 127.

  29. See Friedlander, Origins of Nazi Genocide, 260–61.

  30. Ritter cited in Ludwig Eiber, “Ich wußte, es wird schlimm”: Die Verfolgung der Sinti und Roma in München, 1933-1945 (Munich, 1993), 41.

  31. BAB R18/5644, 229, RMI to Sipo, RKPA, Jan. 24, 1940.

  32. Hitler: Reden und Proklamationen, vol. 2, 525-26.

  33. See Ulrich Herbert, Best: Biographische Studien über Radikalismus, Weltanschauung, und Vernunft, 1930–1989 (Bonn, 1996), 168-70; Johannes Tuchel, Konzentrationslager: Organisationsgeschichte und Funktion der “Inspektion der Konzentrationslager,” 1934-1938 (Boppard, 1991), 312-13.

  34. Tuchel, Konzentrationslager, 361. These figures, from October 28, were before the mass arrests of the Jews that followed Kristallnacht.

  35. Zimmermann, Rassenutopie und Genozid, 120.

  36. See Karl-Leo Terhorst, Polizeiliche planmäßige Überwachung und polizeiliche Vorbeugungshaft im Dritten Reich (Heidelberg, 1985), 153.

  37. Toni Siegert, 30,000 Tote mahnen! Die Geschichte des Konzentrationslagers Flossenbürg und seiner 100 Außenlager von 1938 bis 1945 (Weiden, 1984), 9.

  38. See Ayaß, “Asoziale” im Nationalsozialismus, 162.

  39. Toni Siegert, “Das Konzentrationslager Flossenbürg: Gegründet für sogenannte Asoziale und Kriminelle,” in Martin Broszat et al., eds., Bayern in der NS-Zeit (Munich, 1979), vol. 2, 446.

  40. Ibid., 452.

  41. See ibid., 446, 461, 469.

  42. Ibid., 450.

  43. Ibid., 470.

  44. Siegert, 30,000 Tote mahnen! 6; Siegert, “Das Konzentrationslagen Flossenbürg,” 477.

  45. For the exact figures, see Siegert, “Das Konzentrationslager Flossenbürg,” 490–92.

  46. Common estimates of those killed in the French Revolution range between eleven and eighteen thousand. This is the number cited by John Merriman, A History of Modern Europe (New York, 1996), vol. 2, 536.

  47. Tuchel, Konzentrationslager, 315-17.

  48. Klaus Drobisch and Günther Wieland, System der NS-Konzentrationslager, 1933-1939 (Berlin, 1993), 339.

  49. Pohl to Himmler, April 30, 1942, doc. 129-R, in IMT, vol. 38, 362-65.

  50. See Albert Speer, Infiltration: How Heinrich Himmler Schemed to Build an SS Industrial Empire (New York, 1981), 22-24.

  51. See ibid., 22-25, and app. 1, 307-10, for more details on the impact of those meetings.

  CHAPTER 22: RIVAL VISIONS OF WORLD CONQUEST

  1. See the “Appeal for the Formation of the Communist International,” SDFP, vol. 1, 136-37.

  2. George F. Kennan, Russia and the West Under Lenin and Stalin (New York, 1960), 239.

  3. Stalin, Sochineniia, vol. 7, 14. See also Andreas Hillgruber, Deutschlands Rolle in der Vorgeschichte der beiden Weltkriege, 2nd ed. (Göttingen, 1979), 97.

  4. Stalin, Sochineniia (May 9, 1925), vol. 7, 109-21, report.

  5. Ibid., vol. 13, 333-79.

  6. McNeal, Stalin sochineniia, vol. 1 (vol. 14), 197.

  7. Ibid., 338-39.

  8. Georgi Dimitrov, Tagebücher, 1933-1943 (Berlin, 2000), vol. 1, 115.

  9. For a summary of the debate and a study that emphasizes power-political over ideological considerations in Soviet foreign policy, see Gabriel Gorodetsky, Grand Delusion: Stalin and the German Invasion of Russia (New Haven, Conn., 1999).

  10. Hans Mommsen, Beamtentum im Dritten Reich (Stuttgart, 1966), 98. He qualified this exaggeration by saying that Hitler was a weak dictator when it came to “all questions which needed the adoption of a fundamental and definitive position,” but that point does not hold, either.

  11. DRZW, vol. 1, 538.

  12. Cited in Klaus Hildebrand, Das vergangene Reich: Deutsche Außenpolitik von Bismarck bis Hitler (Berlin, 1999), 666.

  13. See Klaus Hildebrand, The Foreign Policy of the Third Reich (Berkeley, Calif., 1973), 79; Gerhard L. Weinberg, ed., Hitler’s Second Book: The Unpublished Sequel to “Mein Kampf” (New York, 2003), esp. 134-52.

  14. Hildebrand, Foreign Policy of the Third Reich, 22.

  15. See Gerhard L. Weinberg, The Foreign Policy of Hitler’s Germany: Diplomatic Revolution in Europe 1933-36 (Chicago, 1970), 21–22.

  16. IMT, vol. 25, 402-13; Gerhard L. Weinberg, Foreign Policy of Hitler’s Germany: Starting World War II, 1937-1939 (Chicago, 1980), 34-43.

  17. Cited in Hillgruber, Deutschlands Rolle, 76-77.

  18. Nevile Henderson, Failure of a Mission: Berlin, 1937-1939 (New York, 1940), 181.

  19. Noakes and Pridham, vol. 3, 718-19.

  20. Ibid., 724; William
Carr, Arms, Autarky, and Aggression: A Study in German Foreign Policy, 1933-1939 (London, 1972), 102.

  21. Doc. 100–R, in IMT, vol. 38, 274-76.

  22. Henderson, Failure of a Mission, 225, 227.

  23. Hitler: Reden und Proklamationen, vol. 3, 1131–33.

  24. Doc. 079-L, in IMT, vol. 37, 546-56.

  25. See Michael Wildt, Generation des Unbedingten: Das Führungskorps des Reichssicherheitshauptamtes (Hamburg, 2002), 421–22; Alexander B. Rossino, Hitler Strikes Poland: Blitzkrieg, Ideology, and Atrocity (Lawrence, Kans., 2005), 12, 21.

  26. Wildt, Generation des Unbedingten, 426-28.

  27. Rossino, Hitler Strikes Poland, 14-16, 244 n. 83.

  28. See Wolfram Wette, Die Wehrmacht: Feindbilder, Vernichtungskrieg, Legenden (Frankfurt am Main, 2002), 90–94.

  29. No. 192, in DGFP, vol. 7, 200–4; also Nuremberg doc. 798-PS.

  30. No. 193, in ibid., 205-6; also Nuremberg doc. 1015-PS.

  31. Nicolaus von Below, Als Hitlers Adjutant, 1937-45 (Mainz, 1980), 181.

  32. See Wolfgang Jacobmeyer, “Der Überfall auf Polen und der neue Charakter des Krieges,” in Christoph Kleßmann, ed., September 1939: Krieg, Besatzung, Widerstand in Polen (Göttingen, 1989), 16-17. He cites part of Nuremberg 1014-PS apparently omitted from the document submitted at the trials, and thus not translated in DGFP.

  33. McNeal, Stalin sochineniia, vol. 14, 340–41.

  34. No. 1, in DGFP, vol. 6, i-3.

  35. Litvinov note, March 18, 1939, in SDFP, vol. 3, 322-23. See also Dmitri Volkogonov, Triumf i tragediya. Politichesky portret J. V. Stalina (Moscow, 1989), vol. 2, part 1, 12.

  36. Cited in Derek Watson, Molotov: A Biography (London, 2005), 155.

  37. Volkogonov, Triumf i tragediya. Politichesky portret J. V. Stalina, vol. 2, part 1, 19.

  38. No. 105, in DGFP, vol. 7, 114-16; no. 113, 123.

  39. Feliks Ivanovich Chuev and Vyacheslav Molotov, Sto sorok besed s Molo-tovym: iz dnevnika F. Chueva (Moscow, 1991), 45, 46, also Volkogonov, Triumf i tragediya. Politichesky portret J. V. Stalina, vol. 2, part 1, 24-28.

 

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