Lenin, Stalin, and Hitler
Page 76
71. See Christian Gerlach and Götz Aly, Das letzte Kapitel: Der Mord an den ungarishen Juden (Munich, 2002), 258.
72. See Rudolph L. Braham, “Hungarian Jews,” in Yisrael Gutman and Michael Berenbaum, eds., Anatomy of the Auschwitz Death Camp (Bloomington, Ind., 1994), 456-68.
73. Hilberg, Destruction of the European Jews, vol. 3, 894; Steinbacher, Auschwitz, 105.
74. Franciszek Piper, “The Number of Victims,” in Gutman and Berenbaum, Anatomy of the Auschwitz Death Camp, 61–76.
CHAPTER 31: GREATEST CRISIS IN STALIN’S CAREER
1. No. 659, in DGFP, vol. 12, 1063-65.
2. John Erickson, The Road to Stalingrad: Stalin’s War with Germany (New Haven, Conn., 1975), 124.
3. Georgi Dimitrov, Tagebücher, 1933-1943 (Berlin, 2000), vol. 2, 392-93, also for what follows.
4. Robert Service, Stalin: A Biography (Cambridge, Mass., 2004), 412-13.
5. SDFP, 490–91; Feliks Ivanovich Chuev and Vyacheslav Molotov, Sto sorok beseds Molotovym: iz dnevnika F. Chueva (Moscow, 1991), 44-45.
6. Did Stalin admit he lacked the courage to speak to the nation about the German attack, as some have suggested? See Constantine Pleshakov, Stalin’s Folly: The Tragic First Ten Days of WWII on the Eastern Front (Boston, 2005), 114. The author gives no source for Stalin’s “admission,” which seems improbable.
7. Dmitri Volkogonov, Triumf i tragediya. Politichesky portret J. V. Stalina (Moscow, 1989), vol. 2, part 1, 192-93.
8. On the military conference of December 1940, and war game of January 1941, see Erickson, Road to Stalingrad, 8-9.
9. See Service, Stalin, 414.
10. See 1941 god, vol. 2, 498.
11. Sergo Beria, Beria, My Father: Inside Stalin’s Kremlin (London, 2001), 71.
12. Volkogonov, Triumf i tragediya. Politichesky portret J. V. Stalina, vol. 2, part 1, 246.
13. David M. Glantz and Jonathan House, When Titans Clashed: How the Red Army Stopped Hitler (Lawrence, Kans., 1995), 51.
14. Erickson, Road to Stalingrad, 163-64; Roger R. Reese, Stalin’s Reluctant Soldiers: A Social History of the Red Army, 1925-1941 (Lawrence, Kans., 1996), 196.
15. McNeal, Stalin sochineniia, vol. 2 (vol. 15), 1–10.
16. NYT, July 4, 1941.
17. Alexander Werth, Russia at War, 1941–1945 (New York, 1964), 213-23.
18. DRZW, vol. 4, 734-35, also for what follows.
19. Volkogonov, Triumf i tragediya. Politichesky portret J. V. Stalina, vol. 2, part 185.
20. Michael Parrish, Sacrifice of the Generals: Soviet Senior Officer Losses, 1939-1953 (Oxford, 2004), xix-xxi.
21. Cited in Dmitri Volkogonov, Autopsy for an Empire: The Seven Leaders Who Built the Soviet Regime (New York, 1998), 115.
22. DRZW, vol. 4, 725.
23. Cited in Volkogonov, Triumf i tragediya. Politichesky portret J. V. Stalina, vol.2, part 1, 205.
24. DRZW, vol. 4, 727.
25. Alexander N. Yakovlev, A Century of Violence in Soviet Russia (New Haven, Conn., 2002), 174.
26. Marius Broekmeyer, Stalin, the Russians, and Their War, 1941–1945 (Madison, Wis., 2004), 168-69.
27. Ibid., 94-95.
28. Ibid., 169-70.
29. Roger R. Reese, The Soviet Military Experience (New York, 2000), 116.
30. Yakovlev, Century of Violence in Soviet Russia, 175.
31. Cited in Volkogonov, Autopsy for an Empire, 118.
32. DRZW, vol. 4, 727.
33. Strobe Talbott, ed., Khrushchev Remembers (Boston, 1970), 189.
34. HP 117, 34-35, 46-49, 51–52.
35. Alexander Dallin, German Rule in Russia, 1941–1945: A Study in Occupation Policies (Boulder, Colo., 1981), 65.
36. Ibid., 41–58.
CHAPTER 32: BETWEEN SURRENDER AND DEFIANCE
1. Cited in Martin Gilbert, Finest Hour: Winston S. Churchill, 1939-1941 (London, 1983), 1168.
2. Pavel Sudoplatov and Anatoli Sudoplatov, Special Tasks: The Memoirs of an Unwanted Witness—a Soviet Spymaster (New York, 1994), 145.
3. Central Archives of the Soviet Defense Ministry, TsAMO, f. 32, op. 701 323 d. 38, 1. 53, cited in Dmitri Volkogonov, Triumf i tragediya. Politichesky portret J. V. Stalina (Moscow, 1989), vol. 2, part 1, 172-73, who insists that Stalin, Molotov, and Beria met with the ambassador.
4. Additional evidence can be found in Sudoplatov and Sudoplatov, Special Tasks, 146-47; Simon Sebag Montefiore, Stalin: The Court of the Red Tsar (New York, 2004), 380; Constantine Pleshakov, Stalin’s Folly: The Tragic First Ten Days of WWII on the Eastern Front (Boston, 2005), 189-90; and 1941 god, doc. 651.
5. Beria’s testimony cited in Sudoplatov and Sudoplatov, Special Tasks, 377.
6. Cited in William Taubman, Khrushchev: The Man and His Era (New York, 2003), 162-63.
7. July 11/12, 1941, in Werner Jochmann, ed., Monologe im Führerhauptquartier, 1941–1944 (Hamburg, 1980), 42.
8. G. K. Zhukov, Vospominaniya i razmyshleniya (Moscow, 1969), 334-35.
9. See Sebag Montefiore, Stalin, 392, 710 n. 21.
10. The personal exchange is recorded in Viktor Anfilov, “Georgy Konstanti-novich Zhukov,” in Harold Shukman, ed., Stalin’s Generals (London, 1993), 350–51.
11. See Warren F. Kimball, Forged in War: Roosevelt, Churchill, and the Second World War (New York, 1997), 112.
12. Khrushchev Remembers: The Glasnost Tapes (Boston, 1990), 65-67.
13. Cited in David M. Kennedy, Freedom from Fear: The American People in Depression and War, 1929-1945 (New York, 1999), 484.
14. Cited in ibid., 485, also for what follows.
15. Cited in ibid.
16. See W. Averell Harriman and Elie Abel, Special Envoy to Churchill and Stalin, 1941–1946 (New York, 1975), 80–105.
17. Stalin to Roosevelt, in Commission for the Publication of Diplomatic Documents of the USSR, ed., Correspondence Between Stalin, Roosevelt, Truman, Churchill, and Attlee During WWII (Honolulu, 1957), 13, 15.
18. A.G. Rybin, Stalin v Oktyabre 1941 (Moscow, n.d.), 3-16.
19. Zhukov, Vospominaniya, 346.
20. Ibid.
21. KTB, vol. 1, 1070.
22. See Earl F. Ziemke and Magna E. Bauer, Moscow to Stalingrad: Decision in the East (Washington, D.C., 1987), 42. For the dispersal order of November 5 and the location of various branches of government, see John Erickson, The Road to Stalingrad: Stalin’s War with Germany (New Haven, Conn., 1975), 228-30.
23. Cited in Alexander Werth, Russia at War, 1941–1945 (New York, 1964), 235.
24. M. M. Gorinov, “Budni osazhdennoi stolitsy: zhizn’ i nastroenie Moskvt,” OI (1996), 20–21. This is partially reprinted in his “Muscovites’ Moods, 22 June 1941 to May 1942,” in Robert W. Thurston and Bernd Bonwetsch, eds., The People’s War: Responses to World War II in the Soviet Union (Urbana, Ill., 2000), 123.
25. NKVD report and others cited in Marius Broekmeyer, Stalin, the Russians, and Their War, 1941–1945 (Madison, Wis., 2004), 60, 65, 67.
26. Cited in David Brandenberger, National Bolshevism: Stalinist Mass Culture and the Formation of Modern Russian National Identity, 1931–1956 (Cambridge, Mass., 2002), 117.
27. Jeffrey Brooks, “Thank You, Comrade Stalin!;” Soviet Public Culture from Revolution to Cold War (Princeton, N.J., 1999), 159-94.
28. HP 587, 10, 21–23, 42-45, 80–81, 94-95, 97-99.
29. See, for example, Broekmeyer, Stalin, the Russians, and Their War, 68.
30. See, for example, Gennadi Bordiugov, “The Popular Mood in the Unoccupied Soviet Union: Continuity and Change During the War,” in Thurston and Bonwetsch, People’s War, 54-70.
31. Richard Bidlack, “Survival Strategies in Leningrad During the First Year of the Soviet-German War,” in Thurston and Bonwetsch, People’sWar, 100.
32. Information on the police panic and quotation in Harrison E. Salisbury, The 900 Days: The Siege of Leningrad (New York, 1969), 447-59.
33. Andrei R. Dzeniskevich, “The Social and Political Situation in Leningrad in the First Mont
hs of the German Invasion: The Social Psychology of the Workers,” in Thurston and Bonwetsch, People’s War, 71–83.
34. Cited in Nina Tumarkin, The Living and the Dead: The Rise and Fall of the Cult of World War II in Russia (New York, 1994), 65.
35. Cited in ibid., 66.
36. David M. Glantz, The Battle for Leningrad, 1941–1944 (Lawrence, Kans., 2002), 148.
37. Ibid., 468-69.
38. Reprinted with other valuable materials in Cynthia Simmons and Nina Per-lia, eds., Writing the Siege of Leningrad (Pittsburgh, 2002), 51.
39. Excerpts of this diary and others are reprinted in ibid., 31.
40. Glantz, Battle for Leningrad, 148, 470.
41. Georgi Dimitrov, Tagebücher, 1933-1943 (Berlin, 2000), vol. 1, 440–41.
42. Werth, Russia at War, 240–41.
43. See K. F. Telegin, Voprosy istorii KPSS (Moscow, 1966), 104-7. For background and slightly different timing, see Sebag Montefiore, Stalin, 394-401.
44. Cathy Porter and Mark Jones, Moscow in World War II (London, 1987), 117.
45. Dmitri Volkogonov, Autopsy for an Empire: The Seven Leaders Who Built the Soviet Regime (New York, 1998), 118.
46. Zhukov, Vospominaniya, 352.
47. McNeal, Stalin sochineniia, vol. 2 (vol. 15), 11–35.
48. Cited in Anfilov, “Zhukov,” 352.
49. Zhukov, Vospominaniya, 378.
50. Volkogonov, Triumf i tragediya. Politichesky portret J. V. Stalina, vol. 2, part 1, 286-87.
51. Ibid., 286-88.
CHAPTER 33: SOVIETS HOLD ON, HITLER GROWS VICIOUS
1. G. K. Zhukov, Vospominaniya i razmyshleniya (Moscow, 1969), 368-70.
2. Cited in Dmitri Volkogonov, Autopsy for an Empire: The Seven Leaders Who Built the Soviet Regime (New York, 1998), 120.
3. Ibid., 121.
4. Hans-Adolf Jacobson, ed., Generaloberst Halder, Kriegstagebuch; tägliche Aufzeichnungen des Chefs des Generalstabes des Heeres, 1939-1942 (Stuttgart, 1962-64), vol. 3, 420.
5. H. R. Trevor-Roper, ed., Hitler’s War Directives (London, 1964), 116-21; KTB, vol. 2, 315-16.
6. Memoir printed in Seweryn Bialer, Stalin and His Generals: Soviet Military Memoirs of World War II(New York, 1969), 404.
7. Trevor-Roper, Hitler’s War Directives, 129-31.
8. Cited in Martin Gilbert, Churchill: A Life (New York, 1991), 727. For a study of the catastrophic impact of the bombing, see Jörg Friedrich, The Fire: The Bombing of Germany 1940–1945 (New York, 2006).
9. W. Averell Harriman and Elie Abel, Special Envoy to Churchill and Stalin, 1941–1946 (New York, 1975), 159, also for what follows.
10. Winston Churchill, The Hinge of Fate (Boston, 1950), 498.
11. Cited in Martin Kitchen, British Policy Towards the Soviet Union During the Second World War (London, 1986), 140.
12. Gerhard L. Weinberg, A World at Arms: A Global History of World War II (Cambridge, U.K., 1994), 360.
13. John Erickson, The Road to Stalingrad: Stalin’s War with Germany (New Haven, Conn., 1975), 370–71.
14. July 23, 1942, entry, in Jacobson, ed., Halder, Kriegstagebuch, vol. 3, 489.
15. David M. Glantz and Jonathan House, When Titans Clashed: How the Red Army Stopped Hitler (Lawrence, Kans., 1995), 120.
16. Alexander Werth, Russia at War, 1941–1945 (New York, 1964), 407.
17. Cited in Alexander Werth, The Year of Stalingrad (1947; Safety Harbor, Fla., 2001), 162.
18. Werth, Russia at War, 418.
19. Werth, Year of Stalingrad, 160.
20. Ibid., 156.
21. Werth, Russia at War, 415-16.
22. S. M. Shtemenko, Generalniya Shtab v gordi voiny: ot Stalingrada do Berlina (Moscow, 2005), 120.
23. Cited in Werth, Russia at War, 427.
24. Roger R. Reese, The Soviet Military Experience (New York, 2000), 126-29.
25. Zhukov, Vospominaniya, 389-90.
26. Cited in Marius Broekmeyer, Stalin, the Russians, and Their War, 1941–1945 (Madison, Wis., 2004), 95.
27. Cited in John Barber and Mark Harrison, The Soviet Home Front, 1941–1945: A Social and Economic History of the USSR in World War II (London, 1991), 72.
28. Werth, Year of Stalingrad, 181–82.
29. Ibid., 161.
30. Zhukov, Vospominaniya, 397-98.
31. July 25, 1942, entry in Jacobson, ed., Halder, Kriegstagebuch, vol. 3, 490.
32. Werth, Year of Stalingrad, 159.
33. Sept. 15, 1942, entry in Jacobson, ed., Halder, Kriegstagebuch, vol. 3, 522-23.
34. Zhukov, Vospominaniya, 398-401.
35. Sept. 1 and 8, 1942, entries in Jacobson, ed., Halder, Kriegstagebuch, vol. 3, 516.
36. Zhukov, Vospominaniya, 402-3.
37. See Antony Beevor, Stalingrad: The Fateful Siege, 1942-1943 (New York, 1998), 203-7.
38. Nicolaus von Below, Als Hitlers Adjutant, 1937-45 (Mainz, 1980), 315-17.
39. DRZW, vol. 6, 955-56.
40. Joachim von Ribbentrop, Zwischen London und Moskau: Erinnerungen und letzte Aufzeichnungen (Leoni am Starnberger See, 1953), 260–63.
41. Noakes and Pridham, vol. 3, 846-48.
42. Walter Warlimont, Im Hauptquartier der deutschen Wehrmacht, 1939-1945 (Frankfurt am Main, 1962), 285.
43. Erickson, Road to Stalingrad, 47-49.
44. Traudl Junge, Bis zur letzten Stunde: Hitlers Sectretärin erzählt ihr Leben (Munich, 2002), 95.
CHAPTER 34: ETHNIC CLEANSING IN WARTIME SOVIET UNION
1. See S. V. Mironenko and N. Werth, eds., Istoria stalinskogo Gulaga (Moscow, 2004), vol. 1, 455-75; Fred C. Koch, The Volga Germans in Russia and the Americas, from 1763 to the Present (London, 1977), 284-85.
2. Cited in Koch, Volga Germans, 288.
3. Nicolas Werth, “A State Against Its People: Violence, Repression, and Terror in the Soviet Union,” in Stéphane Courtois et al., The Black Book of Communism (Cambridge, Mass., 1999), 218.
4. Cited in Amir Weiner, Making Sense of War: The Second World War and the Fate of the Bolshevik Revolution (Princeton, N.J., 2001), 150–51.
5. J. Otto Pohl, Ethnic Cleansing in the USSR, 1937-1949 (Westport, Conn., 1999), 54. For a general study, see Gerd Stricker, ed., Deutsche Geschichte im Osten Europas: Rußland (Berlin, 1997).
6. See the brilliant study of Jörg Baberowski, Der Feind ist überall: Stalinismus im Kaukasus (Munich, 2003), 553-632.
7. Pohl, Ethnic Cleansing in the USSR, 61–69; Mironenko and Werth, Istoria stalinskogo Gulaga, vol. 1, 477-80.
8. Pohl, Ethnic Cleansing in the USSR, 74-77, 87-92.
9. Norman M. Naimark, Fires of Hatred: Ethnic Cleansing in Twentieth-Century Europe (Cambridge, Mass., 2001), 94.
10. Pohl, Ethnic Cleansing in the USSR, 83; Naimark, Fires of Hatred, 97.
11. Naimark, Fires of Hatred, 97.
12. Cited in Pohl, Ethnic Cleansing in the USSR, 85.
13. Ibid., 132.
14. Cited in ibid., 121.
15. Ibid., 115.
16. Cited in Naimark, Fires of Hatred, 102.
17. Marius Broekmeyer, Stalin, the Russians, and Their War, 1941–1945 (Madison, Wis., 2004), 178-79.
18. Strobe Talbott, ed., Khrushchev Remembers (Boston, 1970), 596.
19. See Weiner, Making Sense of War, 151.
20. See Yo’av Karny, Highlanders: A Journey to the Caucasus in Quest of Memory (New York, 2000), 227.
21. Cited in Anatol Lieven, Chechnya: Tombstone of Russian Power (New Haven, Conn., 1998), 320.
22. Cited in ibid., 319.
23. Weiner, Making Sense of War, 136-37.
24. Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, Gulag Archipelago, 1918-1956 (New York, 1973), vol. 1, 84.
25. For a view, difficult to sustain with regard to groups like the kulaks, that suggests the Soviets engaged in genocidal practices in the 1930s and during the war, see Eric D. Weitz, A Century of Genocide: Utopias of Race and Nation (Princeton, N. J., 2003), 53-101.
26. Anne Applebaum, Gulag: A History (New York, 2003), 419.
28. Solzhenitsyn, Gulag Archipelago, vol. 2, 134-35.
29. A. B. Bezborodov and V. M. Khrustalev, eds., Istoria stalinskogo Gulaga (Moscow, 2004), vol. 4, 109.
30. Edwin Bacon, The Gulag at War: Stalin’s Forced Labor System in the Light of the Archives (New York, 1994), 151.
31. Solzhenitsyn, Gulag Archipelago, vol. 2, 233-34.
32. For a survivor’s account, see Varlam Shalamov, Kolyma Tales (Harmondsworth, U.K., 1994), 415-31.
33. Solzhenitsyn, Gulag Archipelago, vol. 2, 241.
34. Computed from Bacon, Gulag at War, 167.
35. Ibid., 109.
36. Gábor Tamás Rittersporn, Stalinist Simplifications and Soviet Complications: Social Tensions and Political Conflicts in the USSR, 1933-1953 (Chur, Switzerland, 1991), 295.
37. Oleg V. Khlevniuk, The History of the Gulag: From Collectivization to the Great Terror (New Haven, Conn., 2004), 337.
CHAPTER 35: FROM STALINGRAD TO BERLIN
1. See the tables in Noakes and Pridham, vol. 3, 851–53.
2. For further investigation and sources, see Robert Gellately, The Gestapo and German Society (Oxford, 1990), 244-45.
3. Nicolaus von Below, Als Hitlers Adjutant, 1937-45 (Mainz, 1980), 330.
4. Elke Fröhlich et al., eds., Die Tagebücher von Joseph Goebbels (Munich, 2005ff.), part 2, vol. 7, 295.
5. Ibid., 296.
6. Feb. 22, 1943, Meldungen aus dem Reich, vol. 13, 4831.
7. Jan. 30, 1943, in Hitler: Reden und Proklamationen, vol. 4, 1978.
8. Ibid., 1990–93.
9. Tagebücher von Goebbels, part 2, vol. 7, 609-10.
10. Hitler: Reden und Proklamationen, vol. 4, 2000–2.
11. March 22, 1943, Meldungen aus dem Reich, 4981–82.
12. Dec. 31, 1943, letter, in Heinrich Böll, Briefe aus dem Krieg, 1939-1945 (Cologne, 2001), vol. 2, 972.
13. See Bernd Wegner, “Defensive ohne Strategie: Die Wehrmacht und das Jahr 1943,” in Rolf-Dieter Müller and Hans-Erich Volkmann, eds., Die Wehrmacht: Mythos und Realität (Munich, 1999), 197-209.