by Adam Winkler
4. See Connecticut General Life Insurance Company v. Johnson, 303 U.S. 77 (1938) (Black, J., dissenting).
5. See Richard R. W. Brooks, “Incorporating Race,” 106 Columbia Law Review 2023, 2025–2026 (2006).
6. See ibid., 2047 et seq. The Supreme Court decision ending racially restrictive covenants was Shelley v. Kraemer, 334 U.S. 1 (1948).
7. Late Corporation of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints v. United States, 136 U.S. 1 (1890).
8. See People’s Pleasure Park Company, Inc. v. Rohleder, 61 S.E. 794 (Va. 1908).
9. See Robert L. Carter, A Matter of Law: A Memoir of Struggle in the Cause of Equal Rights (2012).
10. See Brief for Petitioner, NAACP v. Alabama ex rel. Patterson, 357 U.S. 449 (1958), 18, 23.
11. See Brief for Respondent, NAACP v. Alabama ex rel. Patterson, 357 U.S. 449 (1958), 10, 26.
12. On Black, see Roger K. Newman, Hugo Black: A Biography (1997); Burlington Howard Ball, Hugo L. Black: Cold Steel Warrior (1996). See also “Justice Black Dies at 85,” New York Times, September 25, 1971.
13. See Newman, Hugo Black: A Biography, 54; Ball, Hugo L. Black: Cold Steel Warrior, 66.
14. Connecticut General Life Insurance Company v. Johnson, 303 U.S. 77, 83 (1938) (Black, J., dissenting).
15. See Merlin Owen Newton, Armed With the Constitution: Jehovah’s Witnesses in Alabama and the U.S. Supreme Court, 1939–1946 (1995), 106–132.
16. See Lovell v. City of Griffin, 303 U.S. 444 (1938); Schneider v. State, 308 U.S. 147 (1939); Cantwell v. Connecticut, 310 U.S. 296 (1940); Minersville School District v. Gobitis, 310 U.S. 586 (1940); West Virginia Board of Education v. Barnette, 319 U.S. 624 (1943). On the string of landmark Jehovah’s Witness cases, see Newton, Armed with the Constitution.
17. Marsh v. Alabama, 326 U.S. 501 (1946).
18. See Peter Drucker, Concept of the Corporation (1946). On Drucker and his influence, see John Tarant, Drucker: The Man Who Invented the Corporate Society (2009).
19. See Adolph A. Berle Jr., “Constitutional Limitations on Corporate Activity: Protection of Personal Rights from Invasion Through Economic Power,” 100 University of Pennsylvania Law Review 933, 942–953 (1952).
20. See Carl E. Schneider, “Free Speech and Corporate Freedom: A Comment on First National Bank of Boston v. Bellotti,” 59 California Law Review 1227, 1247 (1986).
21. See Tinsley E. Yarbrough, John Marshall Harlan: Great Dissenter of the Warren Court (1992), 126–127.
22. On Harlan, see ibid. Harlan’s decision can be found at NAACP v. Alabama ex rel. Patterson, 357 U.S. 449 (1958).
23. See NAACP v. Alabama ex rel. Patterson, 357 U.S. 449, 460–461 (1958); NAACP v. Button, 371 U.S. 415 (1963); Evelyn Brody, “Entrance, Voice, and Exit: The Constitutional Bounds of the Right of Association,” 35 University of California Davis Law Review 821 (2002).
24. See Bains LLC v. ARCO Products Company, 405 F.3d 764 (9th Cir. 2005); Brooks, “Incorporating Race,” 8.
25. On the emergence of minority business enterprise programs, see Daniel R. Levinson, “A Study of Preferential Treatment: The Evolution of Minority Business Enterprise Assistance Programs,” 49 George Washington Law Review 61 (1980).
26. On the benefits to whites from equal protection law generally, see Derrick A. Bell Jr., “Brown v. Board of Education and the Interest Convergence Dilemma,” 93 Harvard Law Review 518 (1980); Kimberlé Williams Crenshaw, “Race, Reform, and Retrenchment: Transformation and Legitimation in Antidiscrimination Law,” 101 Harvard Law Review 1331 (1988).
27. Regents of the University of California v. Bakke, 438 U.S. 265 (1978).
28. See Thinket Ink Information Resources, Inc. v. Sun Microsystems, Inc., 368 F.3d 1053, 1058 (9th Cir. 2004); City of Richmond v. J. A. Croson Company, 488 U.S. 469 (1989); Adarand Constructors, Inc. v. Peña, 515 U.S. 200 (1995).
CHAPTER 9: THE CORPORATION’S JUSTICE
1. A transcript of Cullman’s tribute to Powell can be found at http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/sfc34e00. The toast was first brought to my attention by Jeffrey D. Clements, Corporations Are Not People: Reclaiming Democracy from Big Money and Global Corporations (rev. ed., 2014).
2. According to David Vogel, there were sixty-two federal laws enacted to protect consumer health and safety between 1964 and 1979, compared to only sixteen such laws in the Progressive and New Deal eras combined. See David Vogel, “The ‘New’ Social Regulation in Historical and Comparative Perspective,” in Regulation in Perspective, ed. Thomas K. McCraw (1981), 155, 162. On faith in industry, see Thomas Byrne Edsall, The New Politics of Inequality (1985), 113.
3. “Meet Ralph Nader,” Newsweek, January 22, 1968, cover, 65; “The U.S.’s Toughest Customer,” Time, December 12, 1969, cover, 89.
4. On the Powell Memorandum and its impact, see Benjamin C. Waterhouse, Lobbying America: The Politics of Business From Nixon to NAFTA (2013), 58–60; Kim Phillips-Fein, Invisible Hands: The Businessmen’s Crusade Against the New Deal (2010), 156–160. A copy of the memorandum can be found at http://law.wlu.edu/deptimages/Powell%20Archives/PowellMemorandumPrinted.pdf. On the reform movement led by Nader, see Edsall, The New Politics of Inequality, 107–114; Vogel, “The ‘New’ Social Regulation,” 170–173.
5. On Nathaniel Powell, see Frank E. Grizzard, “Powell, Captain Nathaniel,” in Jamestown Colony: A Political, Social, and Cultural History, ed. Frank E. Grizzard and D. Boyd Smith (2007), 173.
6. See John Calvin Jeffries, Justice Lewis F. Powell, Jr.: A Biography (2001).
7. Ibid., 550 (quoting ACLU legal director Burt Neuborne).
8. On Powell’s appearance, see Robert Schnakenberg, “Lewis Powell,” in Secret Lives of the Supreme Court (2009), 183; Clements, Corporations Are Not People, 20. On Powell’s views on crime, see Jeffries, Justice Lewis F. Powell, Jr., 210; U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on the Judiciary, Nominations of William H. Rehnquist and Lewis F. Powell: Hearings before the Committee on the Judiciary, 92nd Congress, 1st session (1971), 216.
9. On Sydnor, see Phillips-Fein, Businessmen’s Crusade, 156–160; Matthew D. Lassiter, The Moderates’ Dilemma: Massive Resistance to School Desegregation in Virginia (1998), 112; “House Unit Hears Wage Bill Clash,” New York Times, February 21, 1961.
10. On Nader, see Evan Osborne, The Rise of the Anti-Corporate Movement: Corporations and the People Who Hate Them (2007), 59; “The U.S.’s Toughest Customer,” Time, December 12, 1969, 89; Charles McCarry, “A Hectic, Happy, Sleepless, Stormy, Rumpled, Relentless Week on the Road with Ralph Nader,” Life, January 21, 1972, 45; Jack Doyle, “GM & Ralph Nader, 1965–1971,” PopHistoryDig.com, March 31, 2013, available at http://www.pophistorydig.com/?tag=ralph-nader-time-magazine; Barbara Hinkson Craig, Courting Change (2004), 1–32. See Ralph Nader, Unsafe at Any Speed: The Designed-In Dangers of the American Automobile (1966).
11. Justin Martin, Nader: Crusader, Spoiler, Icon (2002), 57.
12. See Doyle, “GM & Ralph Nader”; “The U.S.’s Toughest Customer,” Time, December 12, 1969, 89.
13. Charles McCarry, Citizen Nader (1972), 29; Doyle, “GM & Ralph Nader” (quoting the Washington Post); McCarry, “Relentless Week,” 91; “Nader’s Zenith,” Washington Post, August 30, 1966, A18.
14. See Michael T. Kaufman, “Joseph F. Cullman 3rd, Who Made Philip Morris a Tobacco Power, Dies at 92,” New York Times, May 1, 2004. The transcript of Cullman’s Face the Nation appearance can be found at http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/jiz28e00/pdf.
15. Phillips-Fein, Businessmen’s Crusade, 160–161.
16. “The U.S.’s Toughest Customer,” Time, December 12, 1969, 91.
17. On Morrison, Nader, and the Public Citizen Litigation Group, see Craig, Courting Change, 33 et seq.
18. Nader quoted in ibid., 32.
19. Ibid., 4; Alan B. Morrison, “How We Got the Commercial Speech Doctrine: An Originalist’s Recollections,” 54 Case Western Reserve Law Review 1189, 1190 (2004).
20. Ben A. Franklin, “Woman’s Drive for Drug-Price Ads Ends Victoriously After
2 Years,” New York Times, May 25, 1976, 12; Craig, Courting Change, 129. See also Randall P. Bezanson, Speech Stories: How Free Can Speech Be? (1998), 157.
21. See Morrison, “How We Got the Commercial Speech Doctrine,” 1192.
22. On Chrestensen’s suit, see the facts recounted in the lower court opinion in Chrestensen v. Valentine, 122 F.2d 511 (2d Cir. 1941), and in the Supreme Court opinion, Valentine v. Chrestensen, 316 U.S. 52 (1942). See also Tom Gerety, “The Submarine, the Handbill, and the First Amendment,” 56 University of Cincinnati Law Review 1167 (1988); “Federal Court Finds Ordinance of City Discriminatory,” New York Times, August 31, 1940, 15; Alex Kozinski and Stuart Banner, “Who’s Afraid of Commercial Speech?,” 76 Virginia Law Review 627 (1990).
23. On Chrestensen’s alimony dispute, see “Never Let Your Husband Buy A Submarine,” Milwaukee Sentinel, October 2, 1938, 23. On Commissioner Valentine, see “Lewis J. Valentine Dies in Hospital, 64,” New York Times, December 17, 1946. For a copy of the handbill, see http://digitalcommons.law.scu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1158&context=historical.
24. See Valentine v. Chrestensen, 316 U.S. 52 (1942).
25. See Craig, Courting Change, 45. For classic statements of free speech theory, see Alexander Meiklejohn, Free Speech and Its Relation to Self-Government (1948); C. Edwin Baker, “Scope of the First Amendment Freedom of Speech,” 25 UCLA Law Review 964 (1977); Martin H. Redish, “The Value of Free Speech,” 130 University of Pennsylvania Law Review 591 (1982).
26. See Morrison, “How We Got the Commercial Speech Doctrine,” 1192.
27. See Martin H. Redish, “The First Amendment in the Marketplace: Commercial Speech and the Values of Free Expression,” 39 George Washington Law Review 429 (1971).
28. The audio and transcript of the Virginia Pharmacy oral argument can be found at http://www.oyez.org/cases/1970-1979/1975/1975_74_895.
29. On White, see Dennis J. Hutchinson, The Man Who Once was Whizzer White: A Portrait of Justice Byron R. White (1998). On what might be termed the “Supreme Basketball Court,” see Gina Holland, “Legal Eagles Tip Off in ‘Highest Court in the Land,’ ” Los Angeles Times, September 8, 2002, available at http://articles.latimes.com/2002/sep/08/news/adna-court8.
30. See Roe v. Wade, 410 U.S. 113 (1973); Linda Greenhouse, Becoming Justice Blackmun: Harry Blackmun’s Supreme Court Journey (2005), 186.
31. See Virginia Pharmacy Board v. Virginia Citizens Consumer Council, 425 U.S. 748 (1976).
32. On Powell’s reaction to Virginia Pharmacy, see Powell Conference Notes, November 14, 1975, Papers of Justice Lewis Powell, Virginia State Board of Pharmacy Case File, available at http://law.wlu.edu/deptimages/powell%20archives/74-895_VirginiaBoard.pdf. On the Nixon proposals, see John D. Morris, “U.S. Moves to End Bans on Drug Ads,” New York Times, November 28, 1971, 70; Burt Schorr, “Fuss Over Fees: Professional People Slowly Lose Insulation from Antitrust Laws,” Wall Street Journal, August 7, 1975, 1; Karen Jo Elliott, “Retail Druggists May be Required to Post Prices,” Wall Street Journal, May 30, 1974, 3. On the antitrust suit, see “Two Pharmacist Groups Are Sued by U.S. Over ‘Code of Ethics’ Barring Drug Ads,” Wall Street Journal, November 25, 1975, 2.
33. See Jeffrey Clements, “The Conservative versus the Corporatist: Justice Rehnquist’s Opposition to Justice Powell’s Drive to Create ‘Corporate Speech’ Rights,” American Constitution Society Blog, September 3, 2014, available at https://www.acslaw.org/acsblog/the-conservative-versus-the-corporatist-justice-rehnquist%E2%80%99s-opposition-to-justice-powell%E2%80%99s#_ftn1.
34. See Craig, Courting Change, 137 (quoting the New York Times); Linda Matthews, “High Court Voids Ban on Prices in Drug Ads,” Los Angeles Times, May 25, 1976, B1. See Bates v. State Bar of Arizona, 433 U.S. 350 (1977) (lawyer advertising).
35. See Lorillard Tobacco Co. v. Reilly, 533 U.S. 525 (2001) (tobacco ads); Greater New Orleans Broadcasting Assn v. United States, 527 U.S. 173 (1999) (casino broadcast ads); Edenfield v. Fane, 507 U.S. 761 (1993); Pacific Gas & Electric Co. v. Public Utility Commission, 475 U.S. 1 (1986) (utility); International Dairy Foods Association MIF v. Amestoy, 92 F.3d 67 (2d Cir. 1996) (growth hormone); Robert Weisman, “Let the People Speak: The Case for a Constitutional Amendment to Remove Corporate Speech From the Ambit of the First Amendment,” 83 Temple Law Review 979 (2011). For a thorough and persuasive account, see Tamara R. Piety, Brandishing the First Amendment: Commercial Expression in America (2012).
36. On the Ad Council, see Wendy Melillo, How McGruff and the Crying Indian Changed America: A History of Iconic Ad Council Campaigns (2013).
37. See Phillips-Fein, Businessmen’s Crusade, 161–162.
38. See Chamber of Commerce of the United States, Business Response to the Powell Memorandum, Washington Report, November 26, 1973; Phillips-Fein, Businessmen’s Crusade, 162; Vogel, “The ‘New’ Social Regulation,” 176; Jack Doyle, “Nader’s Raiders, 1968–1974,” PopHistoryDig.com, March 31, 2013, available at http://www.pophistorydig.com/?p=14452; Clements, Corporations Are Not People, 26.
39. See Waterhouse, Lobbying America, 60–66; Edsall, The New Politics of Inequality, 120.
40. On the Chamber, see Richard Hume Werking, “Bureaucrats, Businessmen, and Foreign Trade: The Origins of the United States Chamber of Commerce,” 52 Business History Review 321 (1978); Cathie Jo Martin and Duane Swank, The Political Construction of Business Interests: Coordination, Growth, and Equality (2012), 101–104; ; U.S. Chamber of Commerce: The Early Years (2012), available at https://www.uschamber.com/sites/default/files/uscc_HistoryBook.pdf.
41. On the Chamber’s politicization and electoral activity, see Phillips-Fein, Businessmen’s Crusade, 199–203; Edsall, The New Politics of Inequality, 123–127; Waterhouse, Lobbying America, 58–62; Carol D. Leonnig, “Corporate Donors Fuel Chamber of Commerce’s Political Power,” Washington Post, October 19, 2012; Ben Jacobs, “U.S. Chamber of Commerce’s Big Money Fail in 2012,” The Daily Beast, November 17, 2013; “U.S. Chamber of Commerce Outside Spending Summary 2012,” available at http://www.opensecrets.org/outsidespending/detail.php?cmte=US+Chamber+of+Commerce&cycle=2012.
42. See Thomas Dye and Harmon Zeigler, The Irony of Democracy: An Uncommon Introduction to American Politics (2008), 200; Phillips-Fein, Businessmen’s Crusade, 190–198; Mark Green and Andrew Buchsbaum, “The Corporate Lobbies: The Two Styles of the Business Roundtable and Chamber of Commerce,” in The Big Business Reader: On Corporate America, ed. Mark Green et al. (1983), 204; Edsall, The New Politics of Inequality, 113–114.
43. See Robert A. Bennett, “Boston Bank Chief Yields Post,” New York Times, November 25, 1982; Boston Urban Study Group, Who Rules Boston? (1984); Bank of Boston Corporation, International Directory of Company Histories (1990), available at http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-2840600083.html.
44. See First National Bank of Boston v. Attorney General, 359 N.E.2d 1262 (Mass. 1970); Lustwerk v. Lytron, 183 N.E.2d 871 (Mass. 1962).
45. See Bennett, “Boston Bank Chief Yields Post”; First National Bank of Boston v. Attorney General, 359 N.E.2d 1262 (Mass. 1970); First National Bank of Boston v. Bellotti, 435 U.S. 765 (1978). The best account of First Bank’s fight against the graduated tax is Nikolas Bowie, “Corporate Democracy: How Corporations Justified Their Right to Speak in 1970s Boston” (unpublished manuscript, 2017).
46. See Rick Perlstein, The Invisible Bridge: The Fall of Nixon and the Rise of Reagan (2014), 478–479. The Fortune article was quoted in Vogel, “The ‘New’ Social Regulation,” 163. On business sentiment in Massachusetts during the Dukakis years, see R. Scott Fosler, The New Economic Role of the American States (1988), 34–36.
47. On Frankfurter, see H. N. Hirsch, The Enigma of Felix Frankfurter (1981). His view of the political thicket was stated in Colegrove v. Green, 328 U.S. 549 (1946).
48. See Buckley v. Valeo, 424 U.S. 1 (1976). On the impact of Buckley, see Richard L. Hasen, The Supreme Court and Election Law (2003).
49. Audio and transcription of oral argument in the
Bellotti case are available at http://www.oyez.org/cases/1970-1979/1977/1977_76_1172.
50. On amicus briefs in the Supreme Court, see Joseph D. Kearney and Thomas W. Merrill, “The Influence of Amicus Curiae Briefs on the Supreme Court,” 148 University of Pennsylvania Law Review 743 (2000); Stuart Banner, “The Myth of the Neutral Amicus: American Courts and Their Friends, 1790–1890,” 20 Constitutional Commentary 111 (2003); Paul M. Collins, Friends of the Supreme Court: Interest Groups and Judicial Decision Making (2008). See Clements, Corporations Are Not People, 26; Waterhouse, Lobbying America, 61; Ann Southworth, Lawyers of the Right: Professionalizing the Conservative Coalition (2009), 15; Phillips-Fein, Businessmen’s Crusade, 162.
51. See Memorandum to William Rehnquist from Lewis Powell, April 17, 1978, Bellotti Case File, Papers of Lewis Powell, available at http://law.wlu.edu/deptimages/powell%20archives/76-1172_FirstNationalBellotti1978April.pdf.
52. Powell Conference Notes, November 11, 1977, Bellotti Case File, Papers of Lewis Powell, 1977, available at http://law.wlu.edu/deptimages/powell%20archive/76-1172_FirstNationalBellotti1977.pdf; Draft Dissent of Byron White, March 7, 1978, Bellotti Case File, Papers of Lewis Powell, available at http://law.wlu.edu/deptimages/powell%20archives/76-1172_FirstNationalBellotti1978Mar.pdf.
53. See Preliminary Memorandum, April 6, 1977, Bellotti Case File, Papers of Lewis Powell, 1977, available at http://law.wlu.edu/deptimages/powell%20archives/76-1172_FirstNationalBellotti1977.pdf; Memorandum by Lewis Powell, August 9, 1977, Bellotti Case File, Papers of Lewis Powell, 1977, available at http://law.wlu.edu/deptimages/powell%20archives/76-1172_FirstNationalBellotti1977.pdf.
54. On Brennan, see Seth Stern and Stephen Wermiel, Justice Brennan: Liberal Champion (2010); Linda Greenhouse, “An Activist’s Legacy: From Personal Liberties to Voting Rights, Brennan Led Way in Changing the Nation,” New York Times, July 22, 1990; Alex Kozinski, “The Great Dissenter,” New York Times, July 6, 1997. On the Warren court, see Morton J. Horwitz, The Warren Court and the Pursuit of Justice (1999). See Furman v. Georgia, 408 U.S. 238 (1972); Roe v. Wade, 410 U.S. 113 (1973); Craig v. Boren, 429 U.S. 190 (1976).