by Adam Winkler
55. Memorandum to the Conference from William Brennan, December 1, 1977, Bellotti Case File, Papers of Lewis Powell, 1977, available at http://law.wlu.edu/deptimages/powell%20archives/76-1172_FirstNationalBellotti1977.pdf. On the drafting of Bellotti, see Clements, “The Conservative versus the Corporatist.”
56. See Letter to the Conference from William Brennan, December 1, 1977, Bellotti Case File, Papers of Lewis Powell, 1977, available at http://law.wlu.edu/deptimages/powell%20archives/76-1172_FirstNationalBellotti1977.pdf; Memorandum to the Conference from Lewis Powell, December 6, 1977, Bellotti Case File, Papers of Lewis Powell, 1977, available at http://law.wlu.edu/deptimages/powell%20archives/76-1172_FirstNationalBellotti1977.pdf.
57. Memorandum to William Brennan from Warren Burger, December 6, 1977, Bellotti Case File, Papers of Lewis Powell, 1977, available at http://law.wlu.edu/deptimages/powell%20archives/76-1172_FirstNationalBellotti1977.pdf.
58. Letter to William Rehnquist from Lewis Powell, April 6, 1978, Bellotti Case File, Papers of Lewis Powell, available at http://law.wlu.edu/deptimages/powell%20archives/76-1172_FirstNationalBellotti1978April.pdf.
59. See Greenhouse, Becoming Justice Blackmun; Tinsley Yarbrough, Harry A. Blackmun: The Outsider Justice (2008).
60. On Powell’s reaction to Virginia Pharmacy, see Powell Conference Notes, November 14, 1975, Papers of Justice Lewis Powell, Virginia State Board of Pharmacy Case File, available at http://law.wlu.edu/deptimages/powell%20archives/74-895_VirginiaBoard.pdf.
61. Bregstein’s bio can be found at https://www.law.upenn.edu/cf/faculty/nbgordon/. On women partners in Washington, DC, law firms in the late 1970s and early 1980s, see Cynthia Fuchs Epstein, Women in Law (2012), 193–194.
62. Bench Memorandum by Nancy Bregstein to Lewis Powell, September 13, 1977, Bellotti Case File, Papers of Lewis Powell, 1977, available at http://law.wlu.edu/deptimages/powell%20archives/76-1172_FirstNationalBellotti1977.pdf.
63. Powell Conference Notes, November 11, 1977, Bellotti Case File, Papers of Lewis Powell, 1977, available at http://law.wlu.edu/deptimages/powell%20archives/76-1172_FirstNationalBellotti1977.pdf; Memorandum from Nancy Bergstein to Lewis F. Powell, Jr., January 30, 1978, Bellotti Case File, Papers of Lewis Powell, available at http://law.wlu.edu/deptimages/powell%20archives/76-1172_FirstNationalBellotti1978JanFeb.pdf.
64. See J. W. Sullivan, Direct Legislation By the Citizenship Through the Initiative and Referendum (1892); Matthew Manweller, The People vs. the Courts: Judicial Review and Direct Democracy in the American Legal System (2005), 22–23.
65. Liz Essley White, “Big Business Crushed Ballot Measures in 2014,” Center for Public Integrity, February 5, 2015, available at https://www.publicintegrity.org/2015/02/05/16693/big-business-crushed-ballot-measures-2014.
66. See Michael T. Kaufman, “Joseph F. Cullman 3rd, Who Made Philip Morris a Tobacco Power, Dies at 92,” New York Times, May 1, 2004; Richard Kluger, Ashes to Ashes: America’s Hundred-Year Cigarette War, the Public Health, and the Unabashed Triumph of Philip Morris (1996), 170.
67. See Clements, Corporations Are Not People, 26; Waterhouse, Lobbying America, 61; Southworth, Lawyers of the Right, 15; Adam Liptak, “Justices Offer Receptive Ear to Business Interests,” New York Times, December 18, 2010.
68. Riegel v. Medtronic, 552 U.S. 312 (2008).
69. See Jeffrey Rosen, “Supreme Court Inc.,” New York Times Magazine, March 16, 2008, available at http://www.nytimes.com/2008/03/16/magazine/16supreme-t.html?mcubz=1; Tony Mauro, “The Supreme Court’s Majority Flexes Its Muscles,” Legal Times, February 25, 2008.
CHAPTER 10: THE TRIUMPH OF CORPORATE RIGHTS
1. See James Bennett, “The New Price of American Politics,” The Atlantic, October 2012, available at http://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2012/10/the/309086/. On “the wild west,” see Mary Beth Schneider, “Hoosier’s Campaign-Finance Crusade Pays Off,” Indianapolis Star, August 26, 2012, available at http://www.indystar.com/story/news/politics/2014/04/02/hoosiers-campaign-finance-crusade-pays/7228163/.
2. See “A Conversation with James Bopp, Jr.,” Legally Speaking, October 2013, available at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LHyKHdC__Ak; Stephanie Mencimer, “The Man Behind Citizens United Is Just Getting Started,” Mother Jones, May/June 2011, available at http://www.motherjones.com/politics/2011/05/james-bopp-citizens-united/.
3. See James Bopp Jr. and Richard Coleson, “Vote-Dilution Analysis in Bush v. Gore,” 23 St. Thomas Law Review 461 (2011).
4. On partisan realignment and polarization, see Jeffrey M. Stonecash, “The Two Key Factors Behind Our Polarized Politics,” in Political Polarization in American Politics, ed. John Sides and Daniel J. Hopkins (2015), 69.
5. See Marcia Coyle, The Roberts Court: The Struggle for the Constitution (2007), 200; Robert Costa, “Trump Enlists Veteran Operative David Bossie as Deputy Campaign Manager,” Washington Post, September 1, 2016, available at https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/post-politics/wp/2016/09/01/trump-enlists-veteran-operative-david-bossie-as-deputy-campaign-manager/?utm_term=.2bb173ebc109.
6. See Jeffrey Toobin, “Money Unlimited,” New Yorker, May 12, 2012, available at http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2012/05/21/money-unlimited.
7. Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act, 52 U.S.C. §§ 30101-30146.
8. See Michael Hollister, Hollywood (2004); Simon Louvish, Cecil B. DeMille: A Life in Art (2008).
9. See Scott Eyman, Empire of Dreams: The Epic Life of Cecil B. DeMille (2010).
10. See David J. Sousa, “ ‘No Balance in the Equities’: Union Power and the Making and Unmaking of the Campaign Finance Regime,” 13 Studies in American Political Development 374 (1999); Edwin M. Epstein, “The PAC Phenomenon: An Overview,” 22 Arizona Law Review 356 (1980); Robert E. Mutch, Buying the Vote: A History of Campaign Finance Reform (2014).
11. Sousa, “ ‘No Balance in the Equities,’ ” 380–382.
12. Ibid., 383.
13. On money as water, see Samuel Issacharoff and Pamela S. Karlan, “The Hydraulics of Campaign Finance Reform,” 77 Texas Law Review 1705 (1999). On CIO-PAC, see Sousa, “ ‘No Balance in the Equities,’ ” 382.
14. See Pipefitters Local Union No. 562 v. United States, 407 U.S. 385 (1972).
15. See Mutch, Buying the Vote, 134; Edwin M. Epstein, “The Business PAC Phenomenon: An Irony of Electoral Reform,” The American, June 5, 1979, available at https://www.aei.org/publication/the-business-pac-phenomenon-an-irony-of-electoral-reform/.
16. See Federal Election Commission, PAC Activity Continues to Rise, June 27, 2002, available at http://www.fec.gov/press/press2002/20020627pacstats/20020627pacstats.html.
17. See Coyle, The Roberts Court, 207.
18. See Austin v. Michigan Chamber of Commerce, 494 U.S. 652, 655 (1990); Randall P. Bezanson, Speech Stories: How Free Can Speech Be? (1998), 59 et seq. Elsewhere, I have analyzed how Austin sought to protect shareholders. See Adam Winkler, “Beyond Bellotti,” 32 Loyola of Los Angeles Law Review 133 (1998).
19. McConnell v. Federal Election Com’n, 540 U.S. 93, 205 (2003).
20. Federal Election Com’n v. Wisconsin Right to Life, Inc., 551 U.S. 449, 457 (2007).
21. Citizens United v. Federal Election Comm’n, 530 F. Supp. 2d 274, 279 (D.D.C. 2008).
22. See Bopp Jr. and Coleson, “Vote-Dilution Analysis in Bush v. Gore,” 461; Author Interview of Jim Bopp, March 6, 2013.
23. See Bopp Jr. and Coleson, “Vote-Dilution Analysis in Bush v. Gore,” 468. Olson addressed equal protection in his rebuttal argument, at the very end of the hearing when it had become clear the justices were interested in that aspect of the case.
24. Bush v. Gore, 531 U.S. 98, 110–111 (2000).
25. See Schneider, “Hoosier’s Campaign-Finance Crusade Pays Off”; Sweatt v. Painter, 339 U.S. 629 (1950).
26. Stephanie Mencimer, “Hillary’s Hero: Judge Royce Lamberth,” Mother Jones, January 13, 2008, available at http://www.motherjones.com/politics/2008/01/hillarys-hero-judge-royce-lamberth.
27. On Ol
son’s honor, see Tony Mauro, “Debate Party: GOP Lawyers Toast Ted Olson,” National Law Journal, October 20, 2008. On the Capitol Hill Club, see Ken Silverstein, “Inside the Capitol Hill Club,” Harper’s Monthly, February 15, 2008, available at http://harpers.org/blog/2008/02/inside-the-capitol-hill-club-private-home-away-from-home-for-republican-lawmakers/.
28. On Kilberg, see his profile on the Gibson Dunn website, available at http://www.gibsondunn.com/lawyers/wkilberg.
29. On the elite Supreme Court bar, see Richard J. Lazarus, “Advocacy Matters Before and Within the Supreme Court: Transforming the Court by Transforming the Bar,” 96 Georgetown Law Journal 1487 (2008); Joan Biskupic et al., “At America’s Court of Last Resort, A Handful of Lawyers Now Dominates the Docket,” Reuters, December 8, 2014.
30. See Lincoln Caplan, “The Supreme Court’s Advocacy Gap,” New Yorker, January 6, 2015; Biskupic et al., “At America’s Court of Last Resort”; Janet Roberts et al., “In an Ever-Clubbier Specialty Bar, 8 Men Have Become Supreme Court Confidants,” Reuters, December 8, 2014.
31. See Lazarus, “Advocacy Matters Before and Within the Supreme Court,” 1498. On the skew toward business interests, see Biskupic et al., “At America’s Court of Last Resort.” On the pro-business tendencies of the Roberts Court, see Lee Epstein et al., “How Business Fares in the Supreme Court,” 97 Minnesota Law Review 1431 (2013); Jeffrey Rosen, “Supreme Court Inc.,” New York Times Magazine, March 16, 2008, 38; Debra Cassens Weiss, “Supreme Court Grants Cert and Rules for Businesses in Growing Percentage of Cases,” American Bar Association Journal, December 20, 2010.
32. On Olson, see Jo Becker, Forcing the Spring: Inside the Fight for Marriage Equality (2014). Olson’s corporate clients before the Supreme Court were determined by reviewing his briefs filed with the Supreme Court.
33. See Tim Wu, “Did Laurence Tribe Sell Out,” New Yorker, May 6, 2015; “Peabody Hired Gun Laurence Tribe Also Working for Coal Giant to Kill Life-Saving Mercury/Toxic Standards,” Clean Air Watch, March 24, 2015, available at http://www.cleanairwatch.org/2015/03/peabody-hired-gun-laurence-tribe-also.html.
34. See Mary Beth Schneider, “Hoosier’s Campaign-Finance Crusade Pays Off.”
35. See Coyle, The Roberts Court, 225.
36. Ibid.
37. Matthew Walther, “Sam Alito: A Civil Man,” American Spectator, May 2014, available at http://spectator.org/articles/58731/sam-alito-civil-man.
38. Lorraine Woellert, “Why Big Business Likes Alito,” Bloomberg News, October 31, 2005; Ledbetter v. Goodyear Tire & Rubber Co., Inc., 550 U.S. 618 (2007); Lee Epstein et al., The Behavior of Federal Judges: A Theoretical and Empirical Study of Rational Choice (2013).
39. Debra Cassens Weiss, “Alito and Roberts Are the Most Pro-Business Justices Since 1946, Study Finds,” American Bar Association Journal, May 7, 2013; Epstein et al., The Behavior of Federal Judges.
40. Transcript of Oral Argument, March 24, 2009, Citizens United v. Federal Election Comm’n, 508 U.S. 310 (2010) (No. 08-205), available at https://www.supremecourt.gov/oral_arguments/argument_transcripts/08-205.pdf.
41. See Jim Bopp Jr. and Richard E. Coleson, “Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission: ‘Precisely What WRTL Sought to Avoid,’ ” 2009–2019 Cato Supreme Court Review 29, 47 (2010).
42. Author Interview of Jim Bopp, June 19, 2014; Coyle, The Roberts Court, 235. The author attempted on several occasions to interview Ted Olson for this book but Mr. Olson did not make himself available.
43. Transcript of Oral Argument, March 24, 2009, Citizens United v. Federal Election Comm’n, 508 U.S. 310 (2010) (No. 08-205).
44. See Steven G. Medema, “Chicago Law and Economics” (June 2013), available at https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers2.cfm?abstract_id=560941; Leo E. Strine Jr. and Nicholas Walter, “Originalist or Original: The Difficulties of Reconciling Citizens United with Corporate Law History,” 91 Notre Dame Law Review 877, 910 (2016).
45. For an overview of the nexus of contracts theory of the corporation, see Frank H. Easterbrook and Daniel R. Fischel, The Economic Structure of Corporate Law (1991); Stephen M. Bainbridge, “The Board of Directors as Nexus of Contracts,” 88 Iowa Law Review 1 (2002); William W. Bratton, “The ‘Nexus of Contracts’ Corporation: A Crticial Appraisal,” 74 Cornell Law Review 407 (1989).
46. See Austin, 494 U.S. at 681–687 (Scalia, J., dissenting).
47. Transcript of Oral Argument March 24, 2009, Citizens United v. Federal Election Comm’n, 508 U.S. 310 (2010) (No. 08-205).
48. Author Interview of Jim Bopp, June 19, 2014; Memorandum in Support of Plaintiff’s Summary Judgment Motion, Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission, No. 07-2240 (D.C.C. May 16, 2008).
49. See “Chief Justice Says His Goal Is More Consensus on Court,” New York Times, May 22, 2006.
50. Scalia’s retort can be found in A Conversation on the Constitution: A Debate Between Antonin Scalia and Stephen Breyer, December 5, 2006, available at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4OyRHiFQp4o.
51. On the dynamics of the justices’ deliberations over Citizens United after the first oral argument, see Toobin, “Money Unlimited”; Coyle, The Roberts Court, 251–252.
52. Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission, 558 U.S. 310, 398 (2010).
53. On the Tea Party, see Theda Skocpol and Vanessa Williamson, The Tea Party and the Remaking of Republican Conservatism (2013).
54. Transcript of Oral Argument, September 9, 2009, Citizens United v. Federal Election Comm’n 558 U.S. 310 (2010) (No. 08-205), available at https://www.supremecourt.gov/oral_arguments/argument_transcripts/08-205%5BReargued%5D.pdf.
55. Transcript of Oral Argument, McConnell v. Federal Election Com’n, 540 U.S. 93, 205 (2003) (No. 02-1674), available at http://www.democracy21.org/uploads/%7B8158ECE3-B325-43F3-A647-AB06B229DD36%7D.PDF.
56. Opinion Announcement, Citizens United v. Federal Election Comm’n, 508 U.S. 310 (2010) (No. 08-205), available at https://www.oyez.org/cases/2008/08-205.
57. On Citizens United and “disfavored” corporations, see Tamara R. Piety, “Why Personhood Matters,” 30 Constitutional Commentary 361 (2015); Tamara R. Piety, “Citizens United and the Threat to the Regulatory State,” 109 Michigan Law Review First Impressions 16 (2010).
58. See Thomas Wuil Joo, “Corporate Speech and the Rights of Others,” 30 Constitutional Commentary 335 (2015); Larry Ribstein, “The First Amendment and Corporate Governance,” 27 Georgia State University Law Review 1019 (2011).
59. See Coyle, The Roberts Court, 272–273.
60. See Morse v. Frederick, 551 U.S. 393, 404–405 (2007); Garcetti v. Ceballos, 547 U.S. 410 (2006). For an insightful analysis of corporate constitutional rights fleshing out Stevens’s theory, see Ryan Azad, “Can a Tailor Mend the Analytical Hole? A Framework for Understanding Corporate Constitutional Rights,” 64 UCLA Law Review 452 (2017).
61. See Regan v. Taxation With Representation of Washington, 461 U.S. 540 (1983).
62. See Bluman v. Federal Election Commission, 132 S. Ct. 1087 (2012); Bluman v. Federal Election Commission, 800 F. Supp. 2d 281 (D. DC 2011).
63. David Bossie’s statement to the media after Citizens United is available at https://www.c-span.org/video/?291571-1/citizens-united-v-federal-election-commission-reactions&start=335.
64. Philip Rucker, “Citizens United used ‘Hillary: The Movie’ to take on McCain-Feingold,” Washington Post, January 22, 2010, available at http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2010/01/21/AR2010012103582.html?sid=ST2010012104871.
65. See Toobin, “Money Unlimited.”
66. On Super PACs generally, see Adam Gabbatt, “Citizens United Accounts for 78% of 2012 Election Spending, Study Shows,” The Guardian, September 24, 2012, available at https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/sep/24/super-pac-spending-2012-election?INTCMP=SRCH. On Chevron, see Dan Eggen, “Chevron donates $2.5 million to super PAC,” Washington Post, October 26, 2012, available at https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/post-politics/wp/2012/10/26/chevron-donates-2-
5-million-to-gop-super-pac/?utm_term=.798d5f26aa1e; Anna Palmer and Abby Phillip, “Corporations Don’t Pony Up for Super PACs,” Politico, March 8, 2012, available at http://www.politico.com/news/stories/0312 /73804.html.
67. On Qualcomm, see Nicholas Confessore, “Qualcomm Reveals Its Donations to Tax-Exempt Groups,” New York Times, February 22, 2013, available at https://cityroom.blogs.nytimes.com/2013/02/22/qualcomm-agrees-to-reveal-donations-to-tax-exempt-groups/. On Merck, Dow Chemical, and Prudential, see Mike Mcintire and Nicholas Confessore, “Tax-Exempt Groups Shield Political Gifts of Businesses,” New York Times, July 7, 2012, available at http://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/08/us/politics/groups-shield-political-gifts-of-businesses.html.
68. On total 2012 new political spending due to Citizens United, see Reity O’Brien and Andrea Fuller, “Court Opened Door to $933 Million in New Election Spending,” The Center for Public Integrity, January 16, 2013, available at https://www.publicintegrity.org/2013/01/16/12027/court-opened-door-933-million-new-election-spending. On increases in state and local campaign spending, see Chisun Lee et al., “After Citizens United: The Story in the States,” Brennan Center for Justice (2014), available at https://www.brennancenter.org/publication/after-citizens-united-story-states.
69. See Dan Eggen, “Poll: Large Majority Opposes Supreme Court’s Decision on Campaign Financing,” Washington Post, February 17, 2010, available at http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2010/02/17/AR2010021701151.html; Greg Stohr, “Bloomberg Poll: Americans Want Supreme Court to Turn Off Political Spending Spigot,” Bloomberg News, September 28, 2015, available at https://www.bloomberg.com/politics/articles/2015-09-28/bloomberg-poll-americans-want-supreme-court-to-turn-off-political-spending-spigot.
70. See Todd Gitlin, Occupy Nation: The Roots, the Spirit, and the Promise of Occupy Wall Street (2012); Heather Gautney, “What is Occupy Wall Street? The History of Leaderless Movements,” Washington Post, October 10, 2011, available at https://www.washingtonpost.com/national/on-leadership/what-is-occupy-wall-street-the-history-of-leaderless-movements/2011/10/10/gIQAwkFjaL_story.html; “A Resolution to End Corporate Personhood,” Occupy Wall Street, available at http://occupywallstreet.net/story/resolution-end-corporate-personhood.