Frozen in Time
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Aleekee, Mike, 107–12
Ambler, James, 250–51
Amundsen, Roald, first transit of Northwest Passage, 19, 100, 189
Amy, Roger: bacteriological analysis, 238–39; Braine autopsy, 230–33; field team 1984, 152; field team 1986, 201, 204; Hartnell autopsy and X-rays, 214–20; polar bear encounter, 159–60; Torrington autopsy, 175–77, 193
Anderson, James, 75–76
Anderson, Larry, 202, 204, 210–14, 217, 230–32
Animals: bears, 63, 159–60, 204, 217–18; dogs, 45, 204, 217–18, 250; foxes, 28, 50, 121; as game, 23, 28, 63; hares, 23, 28, 131; pet monkey, 45; rats, 72, 231
Antiscorbutics: in Arctic exploration, 22–24, 32, 41, 52, 57, 68, 70, 71; fresh meat, eating off the land, 22–24, 28–30, 44, 68, 70–72, 102–3; tinned food (putative), 15–16, 68, 104. See also Scurvy
Artefacts and debris: Beechey Island, 63–64, 160; “boat place,” 86–87, 97, 134–39; Booth Point, 13; Capes Riley and Spencer, 60–61; Crozier’s Landing, 123–26; given to M’Clintock, 79–80; Montreal Island, 75–76; Northumberland House, 163; Peffer River, 80–81; rope, 125; from search expeditions, 161; tin can cairn, 64, 179–81, 203–4; used by Inuit, 75, 95, 131; Victoria Island, 59; Victory Point cairn, 85
Austin, Horatio Thomas, 58–60, 161
Autopsies, 51, 174–77, 193–94, 214–20, 230–33
Back, George, 20, 30–33, 85, 103, 249
Bacteriological analysis, 238–39, 248
Banting, Sir Frederick, 161, 163
Barretto Junior, 44–45
Barrow, Sir John, 18, 20–21, 25–26, 33–35
Beattie, Owen B.: exhumation permits, 146–47, 158–65; in field, 1981, 11–17, 107–12; in field, 1982, 118–39; in field, 1984, 153–77, 178–90; in field, 1986, 201–34; forensic anthropologist, 105–7; lead poisoning hypothesis, 140–47. See also Braine, William; Exhumations; Expeditions in 20th century; Hartnell, John; Lead poisoning and Franklin expedition; Torrington, John
Beechey Island: burial of Thomas Morgan, 68; description, 152–53, 155–57; Franklin’s winter camp, 82, 92, 151–52; graves discovered, 61–66; map, viii; Parks Canada excavations, 160. See also Braine, William; Hartnell, John; Torrington, John
Belcher, Sir Edward, 67, 161–63, 185–86
Bellot, Joseph René, 161
Bennett, Gordon, 249
“Boat place,” ix, 86–88, 97, 134–39
Boats, 27–29, 72, 86–88, 99, 132–33
Bones. See Human remains
Bonnett, James, 52
Booth Point, ix, 11–17, 109, 111–12
Braine, William, 3, 61, 73, 145, 222–34, 239
Bray, Donald, 199–200
Breadalbane, HMS, 163–64
Burials: Franklin, 90, 101–2; preparation of body, 172, 173, 207, 229; reburials, 96–99, 118, 129, 146–47, 177, 188–89, 220–21, 233–34; Thomas Morgan, 68; Torrington, 196–98
Burnett, Sir William, 57
Burwash, L.T., 101–2
Cairns: Beechey Island, viii, 60, 163; Crozier’s Landing, 125; found by Schwatka, 98; James Ross sledging party (1849), 52, 53; of tin cans, 64, 179–81, 203–4; Victory Point, 81–85, 122–23. See also Notes
Campsites (Beattie and searchers), 119, 125, 129, 153, 202
Campsites (Franklin), ix, 59–66, 81, 97, 99, 108, 111–13, 125, 152, 160–64. See also Overwintering
Canada, 7, 100, 109–10, 160
Cannibalism: Beattie’s evidence, Booth Point, 16–17, 111–13; behaviour patterns of cannibals, 116–17; contemporary reaction, 5, 7, 75–76, 113–15; Hall’s reports (from Inuit), 95, 114; in modern disasters, 115; Rae’s reports (from Inuit), 5, 7, 75, 113–14; Schwatka’s reports (from Inuit), 114–15
Carlson, Arne: Braine’s grave, excavation, 223–30; field team 1982, 118–39; field team 1984, 154, 170, 173; field team 1986, 201; Hartnell’s grave, excavation, 202–3, 205; Torrington autopsy, 175–77
Clothing: boots, 114, 132, 138–39, 250; with Franklin party remains, 80, 86, 97, 130, 171, 184–85, 206–8, 210, 214, 226, 228–29, 230; at Victory Point cairn, 85. See also Fabric
Coffins, 165–69, 181–83, 196–97, 202–3, 205–6, 224–26, 230. See also Plaques, on exhumed coffins
Collinson, Richard, 58–59, 68
Coombes, William, death of, 49–50
Crozier, Francis, 38–39, 83, 95
Cundy, William, illness and death, 51
Damkjar, Eric, 154, 160–64, 166–67, 201, 203–4, 230–33
Danehower, John, 251–52
Day and night, polar, 23, 50, 165–66
Debility, illness and death on expeditions: De Long expedition, 249–53; early expeditions, 23–24, 28, 31–33, 38; Franklin expedition, 45, 61–65, 83, 86, 241–42; and Polar Failure, 19–20; psychological symptoms, 50, 68–71, 142, 195; and redefined “Franklin mystery,” 126; reported by Inuit, 95–96; in Royal Navy, 14–15; search expeditions, 49–57, 67–72, 89–90; tuberculosis, 186, 193–94, 219, 238–39, 241. See also Lead poisoning and Franklin expedition; Scurvy
De Haven, Edwin J., 59, 61, 69–70
De Long, George Washington, 249–53
Des Voeux, Charles F., 82, 129
Dickens, Charles, 41, 64, 113–14
Digby, Karen, 12–13, 107–12
Donaldson, Seaman, death of, 32
Enterprise (whaling ship), 45–46
Enterprise, HMS, 48–51, 58, 68
Epitaphs, 61–62, 100, 153–54. See also Plaques, on exhumed coffins
Equipment and supplies: Beattie expeditions, 120–21, 211, 212; 19th-century expeditions, 23, 35, 40–42, 44, 55, 85–88. See also Food and diet; Goldner, Stephan; Tinned food
Erebus, HMS and Terror, HMS: artefacts from, 75–76; Inuit reports, 101; logs lost, 99; and Northwest Passage, 95–96; officers and crew, 259–61; outfitting of, 40–42; previous history, 31–35; reports of fate, 79–83
Excavations: Braine’s grave, 223–30; and daylength, 165–66; Hartnell’s grave, 179–84, 205; by Parks Canada, Beechey Island, 160; techniques, 155, 157–58, 202–4, 222–24; Torrington’s grave, 157–58, 165
Exhumations: of Braine, 222–34; ethical and legal requirements, 146–47; of Hartnell, 178–90, 201–21; by Inuit, 95; Sutherland’s proposal, 65–66; of Torrington, 151–77. See also Trace element analysis; X-ray studies
Expeditions, North Pole: De Long (1879–81), 249–53; Kane (1853–55), 70–72, 231; Peary (1909), 19
Expeditions before Franklin: Back (1836–37), 20, 30–33, 103, 249; Dease and Simpson (1839), 93; James Clark Ross (1839–43), 33–34; John Ross (1818), 21; John Ross (1829–33), 25–30; Parry (1819–20), 21–25
Expeditions in search of Franklin, 262–63; Admiralty efforts, 47–57, 58–59; Beechey Island discoveries, 61–66; Belcher (1852–54), 161; De Haven (1850–51), 69–70; Hall (1869), 94–96; international and private, 58–66, 69–72; interpretations and commentary, 91, 100–102; James Ross (1848–49), 47–57; Kane (1853–55), 70–72, 231; Kennedy (1851–52), 161; Lady Franklin’s efforts, 77–78; M’Clintock (1857–59), 78–90; Penny (1850–51), 59, 61, 161; Rae (1853–54), 74–76; Richardson and Rae (1847–49), 47–48; Schwatka (1878–80), 96–99
Expeditions in 20th century: Beattie (1981), 107–12; Beattie (1982), 118–39; Beattie (1984), 146–47, 152–90; Beattie (1986), 201–34; Burwash (1930), 101–2; Rasmussen (1923), 101
Fabric, 97–98, 130, 158, 165, 170. See also Clothing
Fitzjames, James, 38–41, 44–45, 65, 83
Food and diet: Beattie expedition (1982), 120–21, 133–35; early expeditions, 23–25, 28, 32–33; James Ross rescue expedition, 48; of Royal Navy, 14–16; spoilage, 64–65, 236, 237. See also Antiscorbutics; Lead poisoning and Franklin expedition; Scurvy; Starvation; Tinned food
; Forensic anthropology, 13, 16–17, 105–17, 138, 153–54. See also Beattie, Owen B.
Fox, 20, 78–80, 80
Franklin, Eleanor, 43
Franklin, Lady Jane (née Griffin), 5–6, 43–44, 59, 67, 77–78, 90, 186
Franklin, Sir John: biography and character, 36–38, 44–45; death of, 83; historical reinterpretations of, 4–7; influence on Amundsen, 100; portrait of, 37; premonitions, 43; remains and burial, 90, 99, 101–2; reputation, 4–7, 77–78, 90, 102
Franklin expedition, known events: deaths declared, 73; instructions from Admiralty, 42–43; loss of ships and overland escape attempt, 81–88, 99; and Northwest Passage, 91–93; officers and crew, 36–40, 259–61; origins, preparations and launch, 33–46; reasons for failure, 241–42; route, viii, 92–93
Franklin expedition, reconstructed events, 88–91, 95, 99, 116–17, 137–39, 143, 151–52, 195–98
Franklin mystery, 1–8, 11–12, 41, 64, 76–79, 100, 113–14, 126
Geographic locations and features: Adelaide Peninsula, ix, 95, 98, 101; Back River, viii, 74, 83; Bellot Strait, 26, 79; Boothia Peninsula, viii, 26, 74–75; Cape Crozier, ix, 86; Cape Jane Franklin, ix, 123; Cape Riley, 60–61, 156; Cape Spencer, 61; Crozier’s Landing, ix, 102, 124–26; Devon Island, viii, 59–61, 156; Erebus Bay, ix, 119, 134–35; Frank-lin Point, 123; Gladman Point, ix,
109–10; Gore Point, 127; Melville Island, 21–25; North Magnetic Pole, 26–27; O’Reilly Island, 95–96, 98; Peffer River, 80–81, 99; Point Le Vesconte, ix, 129–30; Port Leopold, viii, 48–51, 53;
Rivière de la Rocquette, ix, 131–33; Simpson Strait, ix, 91–93, 99; Somerset Island, viii, 48, 51–53, 54; Starvation Cove, ix, 99, 108; Tulloch Point, ix, 109–10; Victory Point, 26, 81–85, 93, 122–23; Wellington Channel, 82, 92, 151, 161. See also Beechey Island; Booth Point; King William Island; Northwest Passage
Gibson, William (1931 survey), 109
Gilbert, W.E., on Crozier’s Landing, 102
Gjoa, 100, 189
Goldner, Stephan, 65, 180–81, 238, 249
Goodsir, Harry D. S., 39–40, 44, 214, 215
Gore, Graham, 81–85, 129
Graves: Beechey Island gravesite and headboards, 61–63, 153–54; Braine’s, 222–24, 233–34; Franklin’s, 101–2; Hartnell’s, 179–82, 188, 202–3; Inuit and explorer graves confused, 109–11; Inuit reports of, 12; Irving’s, 97, 98, 125; reburial by Schwatka, 129–30; smell from, 157, 165; Thomas Morgan’s, 160–61; Torrington’s, 154–55, 157–58; water in, 158–59, 202. See also Exhumations; Permafrost
Gray, James, illness and death, 50–51
Grinnell, Henry, 59, 69–72
Griper, HMS, 21–25
Haddington, Lord, 36
Hair, lead levels in, 194, 239–40
Hall, Charles Francis, 12, 94–99, 101–2, 114, 145–46
Hartnell, John: descendants of, 199–201; discharged dead, 73; exhumations, studies and reburial, 178–90, 201–21; gravesite, 3, 62, 180; scientific importance, 145, 239
Hartnell, Sarah, 200
Hartnell, Thomas, 200
Hecla, HMS, 21–25
Hiqiniq, Kovic, 107–12
Hobson, William Robert, 78, 81–82, 86–88, 89–90, 129
Hudson’s Bay Company, 38, 43, 59, 75–76, 85, 141–42
Human remains: at “boat place,” 86–88, 134–38; Booth Point skeleton, ix, 11–17, 109, 111–12, 113; evidence of cannibalism, 111–12, 113, 115–17; found by search expeditions, 80–81, 96–99, 118, 129, 130; found in 20th century, 100–101; at Gladman Point, 110; of Inuit, in modern surveys, 109–10; in Inuit reports, 95–96, 98–99, 101; skulls, 14, 111–12, 176; trace element analysis, 111, 140–41, 144–47, 194–95, 235–36, 239–40, 245–47. See also Braine, William; Hartnell, John; Preservation, of archaeological materials; Torrington, John
Ice (sea ice): early expeditions, 21, 26–28, 31; Erebus and Terror beset and abandoned, 83; hazards of, 128–29; and James Ross rescue expedition, 55; Jeannette beset and crushed, 250; near King William Island, 93
Inglefield, Edward Augustus, 185–87, 206
Inuit: adaptive lifestyle of, 29–30, 72, 102–3; brought to England, 73–74; Dickens’s characterization, 113–14; disturbance of Franklin campsites and graves, 97; and European artefacts, 75, 79–80, 95, 131; Franklin party, reports of, 74–76, 95–96, 98–99, 101–2, 114–15; gravesite, report of, 12; lead levels in remains, 141, 145, 246; mummified remains, 192; skeletons, 109–10; and tinned foods, 24, 86
Inuit informants: Enukshakak, 101; Ikinnelikpatolok, 98–99; Nowya, 101; Ogzeuckjeuwock, 115; Qaqortingneq, 101
Investigator, HMS, 48–51, 58, 68, 161
Irving, John, 83, 97, 125
Jeannette, 249–53
Jenkins, David, death of, 51
Kane, Elisha Kent, 61–64, 69, 70–72, 231
Keenleyside, Anne, 247
King William Island: Beattie expeditions, 107–11, 118–39; description and geography, 11; explored by search expeditions, 79–80, 93, 95–99; map and naming of, ix, 26–27; in Northwest Passage, 92; overland travel, Franklin party, 75–76; visited by Rasmussen, Burwash, 101–2. See also “Boat place”; Booth Point
Kowal, Walt: field team 1982, 118–39; field team 1984, 152, 157–58, 165, 179–84; field team 1986, 201, 202–3, 205, 211–12, 223–33; hair sample testing, 239
Lead: in bones, 111, 140–41, 194–95; in exhumed hair and soft tissues, 144–47, 194–95, 235–36, 239–40, 244–47; exposure, Victorian and current, 142–44, 181, 236–38, 244–55; isotope ratios, 245–46
Lead poisoning and Franklin expedition: Beattie’s hypothesis and tests, 140–47, 235–36; contemporary warnings, 247–48; evidence from De Long’s expedition, 249–53; evidence from human remains, 194–95, 239–41, 246–47; isotope analysis, 245–46
Le Vesconte, Henry T.D., 96
Logs and books, 41, 75, 81, 86–87, 99, 198
Lung diseases, in exhumed Franklin crew, 186, 193–94, 219, 238–39, 241
Martin, Robert, 45–46
Mathias, Henry, death of, 54–55
McClure, Robert, 58–59, 68–69
M’Clintock, Francis Leopold, 20, 51–53, 56, 78–90, 94
Monuments and memorials, 79, 96, 100, 130, 161, 162, 163
Morgan, Thomas, death of, 68, 160–61
News and commentary, on Arctic exploration: Athenaeum, 56, 78; Blackwood’s Edinburgh Magazine, 76, 242–43; Edmonton Journal, 102; Household Words, 113–14; Illustrated London News, 40–41, 55–56, 60, 74, 91, 94, 99; Last Voyage of Capt. John Ross, 29; London Gazette, 73; North Georgia Gazette and Winter Chronicle, 22; Times (London), 35, 41, 43, 65, 147; Toronto Globe, 58, 74–75, 91
Northumberland House, viii, 162, 163
Northwest Passage, 18–35, 67, 68, 90–94, 100, 251
Notes: describing Franklin expedition fate, 81–85, 129; left by James Ross sledging party, 52; none at Beechey Island cairn, 64; none at the “boat place,” 87; pointing finger, 98; in Torrington’s grave, 177; Victory Point, 122–23
Notman, Derek, 202, 204, 210–14, 217, 230–32, 241
Nungaq, Joelee, 152, 154, 201–5, 214, 217–18, 223–30
Officers, of ships, 27–28, 36–40, 83, 241, 259–61. See also Shipboard life
Ommanney, Erasmus, 58–60, 64–65
Osborn, Sherard, 60, 62, 63, 65, 66, 90
Overland travel and sledging: Beattie (1982), 120–24, 127–30, 131–35; early expeditions, 21–22, 26–28, 37–38; Franklin party, 74–76, 85, 86–88; river crossings, 131–33; search expeditions, 51–55, 70–71, 72, 89–90, 97; sledges, 63, 86, 107–8, 126–27; and snowmobiles, 107–8
Overwintering, 21–29, 48–51, 53, 61–63, 69–71. See also Shipboard life
Parry, William Edward, 21–26, 36, 156
Peglar, Harry, notebook of, 81
Penny, William, 59, 61, 161
Permafrost: excavation in, 157–58, 202–3, 222–24; and ice in graves, 168–69, 181, 205–6; in mud flats, 133; preservation of human remains, 145–46, 158–59, 193
Photography, 41, 154, 190, 201, 205, 222. See also X-ray studies
Plaques, on exhumed coffins, 166–67, 182–83, 187, 188, 224–26
“Polar Failure,” 18–20
Preservation, of archaeological materials, 125, 145–46, 158–59, 176, 191–93, 232–33. See also Artefacts and debris; Human remains
Prince of Wales, 45
Radios, in fieldwork, 120, 130–31
Rae, John, 5, 7, 47–48, 59, 74–76, 85, 113–14
Rasmussen, Knud, 101–2, 103
Reburial. See Burials
Richards, George Henry, 20, 67
Robertson, John, 50–51, 55, 56
Ross, James Clark: and debility, 20, 249; early expeditions, 26–27, 33–35, 85; rescue expedition for Franklin, 47–57; Victory Point cairn, 83, 122–23
Ross, Sir John, 21, 25–30, 59, 103
Royal Canadian Mounted Police, 100, 110, 146–47
Royal Navy: broadarrow mark, 124; diet, scurvy and debility, 14–15, 22, 24–25, 33, 254; discipline vs. cannibalism, 113–14; exploration of the Northwest Passage, 18–35; Franklin’s career in, 36–37; “Polar Failure,” 18–20
Ruszula, Geraldine, 152, 159–60, 165, 169, 177
Savelle, James, 12, 107–12, 201–3, 217–18, 223–33
Schwatka, Frederick, 96–99, 114–15, 118, 129, 130, 132
Schweger, Barbara, 202, 204, 210, 214
Scurvy: in Arctic exploration, 18–35, 253; evidence of, in Franklin party bones, 14, 16–17, 136; and Franklin expedition failure, 86, 103–4; in Franklin search expeditions, 50–51, 55, 57, 67–72, 88–90; Inuit reports of, 98; in maritime history, 14–17; symptoms, 15, 142. See also Antiscorbutics; Debility, illness and death on expeditions; Lead poisoning and Franklin expedition
Shipboard life, 22–23, 41–42, 48–49, 69–71. See also Overwintering
Shrouds, 97, 170, 184, 206–7, 226, 228
Skeletons. See Human remains