Why We Eat (Too Much)
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raw foodists 120–21
gestational diabetes 98
ghrelin 80, 81–4, 82, 89, 104, 253, 263
glucagon 196n
glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) 104, 105, 210
glucose
blood see blood sugar
in fruit 130
glycaemic index (GI) 193, 267–8
low-GI diet 267–71
glycaemic load 268–70, 269, 286–91
gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH) 94
gorillas 119, 120
grain, cereal see cereal grains
Greece, processed food 229
Gulf States 44, 50–51, 54–5
gut–brain signalling pathway 81–3
gut bacteria 120, 230–31
gut size 117–20, 117, 120
Guyenet, Stephan 181, 181
Hadza tribe 36–7, 123, 264
haemoglobin 39–40
Hall, Kevin 64
Harris-Benedict formula 67–9
healthcare systems 155
heart disease 140–42, 143, 145–53, 155, 158–9, 160
and alcohol 204
cholesterol, saturated fats and ‘diet–heart’ hypothesis 141–50, 160, 171, 181, 277–81, 282, 283
herbs 250
hibernation 28, 192, 195
Hoffmann, Peter M.: Life’s Ratchet (epigraph) 3
home environment 42, 43–4, 237–9, 253–4
homeostasis 9
Homerton University Hospital xii
Homo erectus 115, 116–19, 135
Homo sapiens, appearance in evolution 115
hormones
appetite hormone x, 20, 80–84, 80, 82, 89, 103, 104, 216, 253, 263 see also leptin
dopamine 188, 240–41
and fat 175
glucagon 196n
insulin see insulin
leptin see leptin
metabolism controlled by x
satiety hormones 80–81, 80, 83–4, 89, 100, 103, 104, 105, 210 see also leptin
sex 175, 225–6
sleep hormone see melatonin
and SNS activation 72
stress hormone see cortisol
thirst hormone 10
hunger 92, 95, 191
and appetite 24–5, 171 see also appetite
and famine 51–3, 94 see also famine
and leptin resistance 93, 95, 97, 99, 99, 100
and starvation see starvation
in vicious cycle with obesity 93, 99, 99, 100
hunter-gatherer tribes 36–7, 37, 130
diet 123–8, 127, 156
study comparing energy expenditure of office workers with 264–5
Huntington’s disease 188
hybridization 134
hydration system 10–12, 20
hydrogenation 152–3, 182
hyper-insulinaemic clamp 196–7
hypertension 38, 52, 73, 155
hypothalamus 24, 26, 95, 100, 171, 275
and bariatric surgery 103
inflammation 97
identical twin study on weight and environment 42–3
immune systems 186–7
infertility 94
inflammation
CRP test 97
and essential fatty acids 185–6, 186, 194–5, 199, 256
function 96n
hypothalamic 97
inflammatory processes 175
and insulin resistance 99, 106, 195, 199
and leptin resistance 97, 99, 99, 100, 186
and obesity 97
protection against Western-type inflammatory disease 256
and TNF-alpha 95, 96–7, 98–9, 99, 186, 199
and weight set-point theory 199
insulin 80, 95, 99–100, 173, 187, 193, 196–8, 200–201, 265
and alcohol 207
and exercise 265
and hyper-insulinaemic clamp 196–7
and leptin 95–6, 99, 99, 100, 107, 194–5, 198, 203
and night work 226–7
and omega-3 to omega-6 ratio 187, 193, 199
as a performance drug, storing energy in muscle cells 196–7
reducing glycaemic load and 267–71
release by pancreas 95n, 98, 196, 198, 200, 208
resistance 98, 99, 106–7, 193, 194, 199, 230
sensitivity 185, 187
and the sugar roller coaster 201–4, 202, 208
taken with sugar 196–7
and TNF-alpha 98–9, 99, 199
and vegetable oils 199
and weight regulation 197–8, 209
and weight set-point theory 173, 187, 197–8, 199, 201, 203–4, 209, 222, 230, 240, 249, 256, 265
intra-gastric balloons 103–4
Inuit people 122, 210, 212
Italy, processed food 229
James, LeBron 220
jaw-wiring 103–4
Jones, Marion 196
Kardashian, Kim 220
ketogenesis 220
ketogenic diet 220–21, 269, 270–71
ketone bodies 199n, 221
ketosis 271
Keys, Ancel 21, 140, 141–2, 145, 146, 148, 149, 278
see also Minnesota Starvation Experiment
kidneys 10–11
fat content 125
Kral, John 56
Lamarck, Jean-Baptiste 54
neo-Lamarckism 54
theory of evolution 54
Lancet 148
lard 153, 172, 173, 176, 190, 289
leaving home, stress of 224
legumes 127, 133, 156
Leibel, Rudy 22–3
leptin 26–7, 80, 84–8, 86, 89, 92–100, 198
and appetite 26, 84–8, 89, 92–5, 99, 99, 100
and the brain 84–5, 87, 89, 93–4, 99, 100
deficiency 87, 88, 89–90, 93, 241
and inflammation 97, 99, 99, 100, 187
and insulin 95–6, 99, 99, 100, 107, 194–5, 198, 203
and raw-food diet 120
resistance 93–101, 99, 105, 107, 186, 187, 193–5, 198, 203, 223, 227–8, 230, 253, 275
and weight set-point theory 85–6, 86, 89, 203, 227–8, 230, 253
life expectancy 158
blue zones 255–6, 255
‘lifestyle diseases’ 155–9, 155
LighterLife 19, 106, 216, 219
Lind, James 169–70
Lindlahr, Victor (epigraph) 163
linoleic acid 181, 181
lipoprotein 146–7, 153
HDL 146, 153, 266, 279, 280, 281
LDL 147, 153, 279–80, 281–2, 283
liposuction 6
liver 8–9, 125, 177, 220, 270–71
breaking down alcohol 205–6
burning alcohol calories (microsomal ethanol oxidizing system) 205
cells 206
cirrhosis 204
fatty 206
Louisiana 44
lunch 251
Lustig, Robert 198
Maasai tribe 210, 212, 222
Maclean, David xiii
macular degeneration 188
maize 32, 130
margarine 172–3, 180, 258, 261, 288
marmot, yellow-bellied 192
marriage, weight gain after 224–6
Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota 18
McGovern, George 148
McGovern Report and US dietary guidelines 148, 149, 150–51, 159–60, 171, 172, 173, 178, 179, 180, 182, 202, 208–9, 283
meat 34, 36, 115, 118, 146, 156–7, 212, 250, 251, 261, 262, 263, 277–9
cured 261
glycaemic load 269, 287
horse meat, scurvy, and French tradition 168
and hunter-gatherer diet 123–4, 125–6, 127, 128, 156, 156
offal 125–6, 133, 156, 278
palmitic acid in 282
substitutes 261
and Victorian diet 133
melatonin 212, 227–8, 252–3, 265
metabolic rate 115–16
basal/resting see basal metabolic rate (BMR)
metabolism
changing 68, 70–75
‘dimmer switch’ adjustments 70–71, 77–8
fat and the control of 4
and fight-or-flight response 71–2
genes encoding for 59
of heavy drinkers 205
hormonal control of x
improving cell metabolism 255–63
improving muscle metabolism 263–7
and melatonin 227–8, 265
metabolic adaptation/‘burn’ 18–19, 22–3, 23, 26, 28, 29, 64–5, 65, 69–70, 73–5, 77–8, 203, 248, 263, 265, 267, 273
metabolic hyper-efficiency 264
metabolic stress and the ANS 70–71, 73
metabolic variation 67–70, 69
switch 20, 23–4
test costs 22
and thermogenesis 70, 74–8, 267
and weight loss 64–5, 65
and weight set-point theory 28–30, 29, 64–5, 66–7, 77–8, 171 see also weight set-point theory
see also metabology
metabology 4–30
and dieting see dieting
energy use and storage rule xiii, 5, 6–9, 8, 12–15, 13, 14, 28, 78
and leptin see leptin
negative feedback see negative feedback in weight regulation
weight regulation see weight regulation
weight set-point see weight set-point theory
methylation 50–51
miasma theory 166–7
microbiome 230–31
microsomal ethanol oxidizing system 205
migration
and the slave trade 48–9
and weight gain 48–9, 228–30
milk 31n, 142–4, 182, 212, 222, 250, 251, 269, 278, 288
mindfulness 241–7
and cortisol 241
and management of cravings 245–6
mindful breathing 246–7
mindful eating 242–4
and stress 241–2
Minnesota Starvation Experiment 21–2, 24, 141
mitochondria 75, 113, 135
monounsaturated fats 151, 176, 259
multiple sclerosis 189
muscle toning 263–7
MyFitnessPal 270
natural selection 34, 53, 54
Nauru 44, 47
Neanderthals 115
Neel, James 46
negative feedback systems 9–11
negative feedback in weight regulation 5, 9–12, 15–30, 64, 77
hunger switch 24
and leptin 85–8, 86, 89
and metabolic adaptation 18–19, 20, 22–3, 23, 26–30, 29, 64–5, 65, 69–70, 77, 203, 248, 273
metabolism switch 20, 23–4
and weight set-point theory 28–9, 29, 64–5, 66–7, 77, 85–6, 86, 89
neo-Darwinism 54
neo-Lamarckism 54
Nestlé 150
New England Journal of Medicine 141, 147–8
nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH) 205–6
night work, weight gain with 226–7, 252–3
nutritional research
heart disease correlations with fat 140, 141–2, 143, 145–53, 171
weaknesses and biases 142–5
nutritionism 211n
nuts 114, 119, 123, 127, 156, 222, 258, 261
glycaemic load 291
obesity
blue zone lack of problems with 256
and BMI 37–8
and calorie consumption 12–15, 13, 14, 17
dietary deficiency as a trigger/driver for 170–95
and ‘diseases of civilization’ 155–9, 155
and energy balance xiii, 5, 6–9, 8, 12–15
and environmental change 32–3, 34–42, 43–4, 47, 61, 193–4, 224, 228–30
epidemic 158–60, 171–5, 172, 174
and epigenetics 51–61
European rates 44
food quality, weight set-point and 29, 33, 38–9, 207, 230, 264–5, 270, 275
and free will 42–3
generational shift in risk 58–9
genetic predisposition to 33–4, 35, 42–62
and Gulf States 44, 50–51, 54–5
hidden obesity genes 46
identical twin study 42–3
league table 44
leptin as hoped-for cure 87–8
and leptin resistance 92–101, 99, 186, 187, 223, 275
lifestyle-choice view of 275
link with intake of vegetable oils in USA 190
listening to patients with ix, xii–xiv, 59, 106–7
and maternal blood sugar during pregnancy 55–6
and melatonin deficiency 227–8
Middle Eastern women’s rates 160, 267
and negative feedback 5, 9–12, 15–30
obesogenic traits in offspring, and maternal over-nutrition in pregnancy 55–8
and omega-3 to omega-6 ratio 183–95, 256
and Pacific Islanders 44, 45–6
and Pima tribe 47
as a pro-inflammatory condition 97
and processed food see processed/Western-type foods
programme to combat see weight set-point-based programme for losing weight
and radiation from atomic testing 49
and reproductive fitness hypothesis 46–7
research 87–8
resistance 41, 41
and self-taught experts 4
sensitivity to 41, 41 see also genetics: predisposition to obesity
and starvation in the womb 51–3, 55, 56, 57
and sugar 140, 193
surgery see bariatric surgery
and thrifty gene hypothesis 47–9
US rates 44, 48, 172
in vicious cycle with hunger 93, 99, 99, 100
and weight of farming communities 38–9, 39
and weight set-point see weight set-point theory
and Western diet with processed foods 39–41, 40, 41, 42, 44, 46, 55, 56, 61, 99, 134–5, 237, 275 see also processed/Western-type foods
oestrogen 175, 225–6
offal 125–6, 133, 156, 278
olive oil 151, 176, 180, 183, 212, 259, 288
Oliver, Jamie 238
omega-3 fatty acids 133, 152–3, 177–9, 177–8, 180, 262
blocked by omega-6 189
and the brain 188–9
and changes to Western diet 182–3
and chloroplasts 178
common food ratios of omega-6 to 286–91
inflammatory chemicals 186
insulin and ratio of omega-6 to 187, 199
and livestock diet 182, 262
obesity and ratio of omega-6 to 183–95, 256
opposing functions to omega-6 184–7, 186
ratio to omega-6 in various populations 183, 256
and shelf life of foods 183, 194, 258, 261
weight set-point-based programme and ratio to omega-6 256–63
Western diet, weight set-point theory and ratio of omega-6 to 182–3, 187, 189–91, 195, 199, 203–4, 229–30, 258–9
omega-6 fatty acids 177, 177–8, 179–82, 180, 181, 194–5, 278
blocking omega-3 189
and the brain 188–9
and cholesterol reduction 180
common food ratios of omega-3 to 286–91
and endocannabinoids 187–8
in fast food 229, 230, 260
inflammatory chemicals/effect 185–6, 186, 194–5, 199, 256
insulin and ratio of omega-3 to 187, 193, 199
linoleic acid 181, 181
and livestock diet 182, 262
obesity and ratio of omega-3 to 183–95, 256
opposing functions to omega-3 184–7, 186
ratio to omega-3 in various populations 183, 256
and shelf life of foods 183, 194, 258, 261
in snacks 258, 260, 261
and TNF-alpha 199
and vegetable oils 179–80, 180, 181, 182, 183, 194
and vegetarian/vegan diets 222
weight set-point-based programme and ratio to omega-3 256–63
Wes
tern diet, weight set-point theory and ratio of omega-3 to 182–3, 187, 189–91, 195, 199, 203–4, 229–30, 258–9
over-eating 16–19, 77, 241
and leptin resistance 91–2, 99, 100
metabolic adaptation to 18–19, 22–3, 26, 28, 73–4, 77, 203, 273
and SNS 73–4
Vermont Prison experiment 16–17
see also binge-eating
Pacific Islands 44, 45–6
Palaeolithic (hunter-gatherer) diet 123–7, 127
‘Paleo’ diet 122, 220
palm oil 32, 34, 176, 283, 289
palmitic acid 282–3
pancreas 80, 95n, 98, 196, 198, 200, 208
parasympathetic nervous system (PNS) 72, 73, 74, 78
pasta 95n, 134–5, 212, 219, 222, 231–2, 251, 269, 290
glycaemic load 290
peanuts 261, 291
peptide-YY (PYY) 80, 81, 83–4, 89, 104, 105, 210
persistence hunting 124
pharmaceutical companies/industry 75–6, 79–80, 88, 142, 144–5, 149–50, 160, 275, 283
Pima tribe 47
pineal gland 227, 228, 252, 253
pituitary gland 25
Pollan, Michael: In Defence of Food 211n, 263
pollutants 155
polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) 94
polycythaemia 40
Polynesians 45–6
polyunsaturates
fatty acids 176–7 see also omega-3 fatty acids; omega-6 fatty acids
oils 151, 194 see also vegetable oils
potatoes 17, 252, 268, 269, 269, 271, 286, 292
see also sweet potato
prebiotics 231
pregnancy 55–6, 94, 225
deficiencies in micronutrients during 56
diabetes in 98
maternal over-nutrition/blood sugar and obesogenic traits in offspring 56–8, 57
obesity, and starvation in the womb 51–3, 55, 56, 57
and TNF-alpha 98
probiotics 231
processed/Western-type foods 39–41, 40, 41, 42, 44, 46, 55, 56, 61, 63, 99–100, 99, 134–5, 136, 154–5, 160, 237, 265, 275, 278
calorie intake from 154
changes after low-cholesterol advice 150–53, 159–61, 172–4, 179–82, 202–3, 208–9, 278
fast foods see fast foods
fat content 150, 154, 180
global spread with free market economics 155
glycaemic load 291
and insulin 199
and omega-3 182–3
palm oil in 283
and proportion of calorie intake in various countries 229
refined carbohydrates 100, 133, 173–4, 180, 202, 208, 212, 213, 219, 222, 278
shelf life 182, 194, 258, 261
sugar content 99–100, 135–6, 150, 154, 160
and trans-fats 153, 182, 281
and vegetable oils see vegetable oils
weight set-point theory and omega fatty-acid ratio in Western diet 182–3, 187, 189–91, 195, 199, 203–4, 229–30, 258–9
Proctor, William 153–4
prostaglandins 186
protein 7, 17, 81, 115, 196n
TNF-alpha see TNF-alpha