Napoleon

by Adam Zamoyski

  Mombello, near Milan, 153–4

  monarchy: restoration question in France, 293–4

  Moncey, General Bon-Adrien Jannot de, 429, 584, 587, 592

  Monck, General George (1st Duke of Albemarle), 238, 292

  Monge, Gaspard, 128, 171, 175, 177, 206

  Moniteur, Le (journal), 246, 256, 339, 446, 463

  Monroe, James, 337

  Montagnards (La Montagne), 64–5

  Montansier, Mlle de (Marguerite Brunet), 98

  Montbarrey, Alexandre-Marie, prince de, 20

  Montchenu, Claude, marquis de, 636, 640

  Montebello, battle of (1800), 275

  Montebello, Louise Antoinette Lannes, duchesse de, 596

  Montereau, battle of (1814), 581

  Montesquiou, Anatole de, 540, 596

  Montesquiou, comtesse de (Louis XVI’s children’s governess), 488

  Montholon, Albine de, 637–9, 641

  Montholon, General Tristan, comte de, 626, 628, 630–1, 639–40, 641, 643

  Monts, Raymond de, 26

  Moore, General Sir John, 445–6

  Morand, Colonel Charles Antoine, 177

  Moreau, General Jean-Victor: commands Army of the Rhine, 103, 271; in campaign against Austria in Italy, 128; depicted in engraving, 143; and N’s advance on Vienna, 150; in plot to restore Bourbons, 158, 342; as potential alternative to N as dictator, 211; N first meets, 218; honoured at banquet, 221; in Brumaire coup, 226; victory at Stockach, 272; suggested as successor to N, 279; as potential threat to N, 284; Hohenlinden victory, 294; avoids Concordat celebration, 314; rivalry with N, 317; N orders arrest, 343; tried, acquitted but sentenced on retrial, 354; death on return from America, 568

  Moreau le Jeune (Jean Michel Moreau), 128

  Moreau, Madame, 314

  Mortefontaine: treaty (1800), 299, 305

  Mortier, Marshal Adolphe-Edouard-Casimir-Joseph, 339, 406, 530, 536, 584

  Moscow: N advances on, 525; abandoned by Russians and burned, 529, 531; N occupies, 530–5; maintains communications with Paris, 533; N evacuates, 535–6

  Moulin, General Jean, 220, 226

  Muiron, Jean-Baptiste, 71, 73, 78, 92, 142

  Munich, 379

  Murad Bey, 185, 188, 190, 196, 595

  Murat, Achille, 258

  Murat, Caroline see Bonaparte, Caroline

  Murat, Marshal Joachim: in Vendémiaire crisis, 95, 97; N sends armistice of Cherasco document and captured standards to, 118; on Josephine’s pregnancy, 121; informs N of Josephine’s illness, 131; in Italian campaign, 147; wounded in Egypt, 185; opposes Ottomans at Acre and Aboukir, 200, 204; leaves Egypt with N, 206; and Brumaire coup, 222, 224, 231–3; rescues N from angry Five Hundred, 231; marriage to Caroline, 259; at Lyon meeting, 309; reports disaffection in Italy, 317; and royalist conspiracy, 345; and N’s elevation to emperor, 354; titled grand admiral, 357; made marshal, 375; sent to southern Germany, 375; commands cavalry against Austrians, 377, 379; N criticises, 379; as Grand Duke of Berg, 398; institutes new orders of chivalry, 399; dress, 407–8; opposes Russians in Poland, 407–8; as prospective king of Poland, 407, 497; relations with Grand Duke Constantine, 415; rivalry with Junot, 424; protects Charles IV of Spain, 429; repression in Spain, 431; as king of Naples, 434; Fouché and Talleyrand conspire to put on throne in event of N’s death, 447; moves from Berg to Naples, 460; and N’s marriage to Marie-Louise, 473–4; in offensive against Russia, 514; in Russian campaign, 520–1, 523, 532; reports on dire state of cavalry in Russia, 533; takes charge of army in retreat from Russia, 543; at Vilna, 547; returns to Naples, 554, 571; commands cavalry against allies, 567; N accuses of treason, 569; signs treaty of alliance with Austria, 578, 582; failed Italian coup and flight to France, 614

  Naples, kingdom of: N signs armistice with, 129, 133; Austria seeks alliance with, 148; declares war on France (1798), 195; France invades, 211; conflict with Papal States, 291; British in, 373; Anglo-Russian forces in, 395; Joseph rules as king, 396, 426, 432–3; Murat made king, 434

  NAPOLEON I (BONAPARTE), Emperor of the French: acclaimed in Paris (1797), 1, 3–8; appearance, 3, 22, 51–2, 74, 88, 98, 110, 153, 248, 253, 326; idealises classical figures, 5, 28, 124, 273, 278, 432, 643; commands Army of England, 7, 167, 170, 172–3; birth and background, 9–11, 14, 16; christening, 16; childhood and upbringing, 17–18; education, 17; military career planned, 18, 20; enters college at Autun, 19; imperfect French, 19, 22, 30, 88, 249; attends Brienne military academy, 21–3; reading, 23, 28, 30, 34, 39, 82, 89; selected for artillery and attends École Militaire (Paris), 26–7, 30–1; rejoins regiment, 28; and father’s death, 29; posted to La Fère regiment in Valence, 31–3; religious views and practices, 31, 39, 290–1, 306, 314–15, 372, 484–5; serious-mindedness, 31; early writings, 35, 39; petitions in Paris, 36–7; revisits Corsica, 36; theatre-going, 37, 87, 94, 97, 167, 170, 173, 176, 213, 261, 353, 373, 394, 427, 438–9, 551; encounter with prostitute, 38; contracts fever, 39–40; embraces Republicanism, 39, 49; financial prudence and control, 40, 98, 388–90; on outbreak of Revolution, 41–2; writes on Corsica, 41, 45, 48; returns to Corsica on Revolution, 42; accepts integration into French nation, 44–5; political activism in Corsica, 44–7; meets Paoli, 46; returns to France from Corsica, 47; welcomes Revolution, 47–8; as first lieutenant in Fourth Regiment, 48; on love, 48–9; enters Lyon essay competition on human happiness, 49–50; elected lieutenant colonel in Corsica, 51–2; given command in National Guard of Ajaccio, 51; and Ajaccio riot, 52–3; denounced by Corsican deputies in Legislative Assembly, 54; rejoins artillery as captain, 55; witnesses mob attacks on Tuileries, 55, 57, 66; changes political allegiance and remains in France, 56–7; takes sister Maria-Anna (Élisa) back to Corsica, 57–8; considers service with British in India, 59; on expedition against Sardinia, 60; assassination threats in Corsica, 61; defends Paoli against outlawing decree, 61; arrested and freed, 62; issues political manifesto and declares for France, 65–7; posted to Nice, 65; commands artillery at Toulon, 68–74; promoted to brigadier general, 74; appointed inspector of coastal defences in south, 75, 76; commands artillery in Army of Italy, 76; plans campaign against Sardinia, 77, 80; affair with Marguerite Ricord, 78; declines accompanying Augustin Robespierre to Paris, 78; memorandum giving strategic overview of French military position, 78; arrested on orders of Saliceti, 79; love affair and engagement to Eugénie Désirée Clary, 80–1, 86–7, 91, 93; philandering and affairs, 80, 89, 304, 320, 341, 394, 468–9; love of music, 81, 90, 221; and recovery of Corsica from British, 81; removed from list of artillery officers and transferred to Army of the West, 81–3, 90; stays in Paris after transfer, 84–8; seeks property to purchase, 85, 90, 98; as patron to family and friends, 86, 98; social awkwardness, 88–9, 256, 258, 480; depressions, 89, 156; appointed to Cabinet Historique et Topographique, 90; submits plan for conquest of northern Italy, 90; appointed to post in Constantinople, 91–2; welcomes new constitution (1795), 94; role in Vendémiaire crisis, 95–7; adopts new manner, 97; promoted and made commander of Army of Interior, 97; early relations with Josephine, 99, 101–3; growing independence and ambition, 101, 122–3; given command of Army of Italy, 103–4, 107; plans attack on Vienna (1795), 103; marriage with Josephine, 104–6; first signs as ‘Bonaparte’, 106; strategy in Italy, 111; belief in superior numbers in battle, 112; on death of Chauvet, 112; first engagement against Austrians in Italy, 112–15; letters to Josephine, 112, 118, 130–1, 138, 144, 148, 187, 274–5, 320, 341, 363, 383, 404, 408, 410, 412, 415, 442, 445; inflates reports of battles against Austrians, 114, 143; wins over troops in Army of Italy, 116–17; fame and reputation after victories in Italy, 117–18; on French aptitude for forced marches, 119; Lodi victory, 119–21; depicted in icons, 121, 143–4, 278; Directory orders Italy command split, 121–2; plan to subdue Italy, 121–2; enters Milan, 124–5; encourages army in Italy, 125–6; decrees army be paid half in specie, 126; movements in Italy, 128–30; narrow escape at Valeggio, 128; ordered to march on Rome, 129; pursues Beaulieu in northern Italy, 128; attends opera, 130,
241, 261, 272, 294, 312, 320, 349, 373, 377, 386, 426–7, 448, 466; Josephine joins in Milan, 131–2; victories over Austrians in Italy, 134–9, 147, 153; leadership qualities, 136; on qualities of French soldier, 136; jealous rivals, 140; agrees to negotiations with Austrians, 144, 158; Clarke praises to Directory, 145; relations with Directory’s commissioners, 145; agrees to formation of independent Italian republic, 146; conflict with Pope, 148, 462–4; moves against Vienna (1797), 149–51; negotiates peace with Austria (1797), 151, 164–7; war on and plunder of Venice, 151; manner and social style, 153–4, 304; authority in northern Italy, 154; portraits, 154, 171, 427; devotion to Josephine, 155; appropriates wealth and plunder from Italian conquests, 156; celebrity and public image, 156–7, 212–14, 278; sensitivity to criticism, 157; negotiations with Pope, 159; plans Cisalpine Republic in northern Italy, 159; interest in expedition to Egypt, 161; warns against Austria rearming, 161; forms bodyguard (Guides), 162; reinforces personal status in Army, 162–3; political ideals, 163, 263–4, 293, 306; summoned to Paris by Directory, 168; meets Talleyrand and Directors in Paris, 169; in Paris (December 1797), 169–72; care on eating, 170; elected to Institute of Arts and Sciences, 171; admiration for British, 172, 598; opinion of women, 173, 179, 257, 286; declares invasion of England impractical, 174; plans expedition to Egypt, 174–5; on voyage to Egypt, 177–9; plans to improve Paris, 179, 260, 360, 399–400, 481–2; and conditions in Egypt, 183–5; enters Cairo, 187; told of Josephine’s infidelities, 187; learns of loss of French fleet at Aboukir Bay, 188; administration and researches in Egypt, 189–95, 203; marches to Syria, 197; atrocities in Middle East, 198–9; fails to take Acre, 199–201; returns to Cairo from Syrian expedition, 201–2; supposedly orders poisoning of wounded men in Middle East, 201–2; view of French navy, 203; defeats Turks at Aboukir, 204; leaves Egypt by sea, 206–8, 269; considers divorcing Josephine, 214–17; political manoeuvring in Paris, 217–21; thrown from horse, 220; honoured at banquet, 221; and Brumaire coup, 222, 224–31, 235; poor oratory, 230; assaulted and denounced by the Five Hundred, 231–2; nominated consul, 234, 236–7; assumes dictatorial powers, 237–8; and Sièyes’ draft constitution, 240; powers under new constitution, 243; takes office as first consul, 243; administration and government as first consul, 244–6, 249–50, 264–7, 288–9, 306, 322; tuneless singing, 245, 395; on Fouché, 246; view of theatre and drama, 247; rejects appeal for restoration of monarchy, 248; conversational manner, 249, 256; proclaims amnesty and freedom of religious practice, 249; qualities assessed by contemporaries, 250; moves to Tuileries, 251–3; eating and drinking, 252; dress as consul, 253, 263; appropriates crown jewels, 256; behaviour and treatment of others, 256–8, 261; manner with women, 257; disapproves of Murat’s marriage to Caroline, 259; daily routines and activities, 260–2, 391–4; impatience to fulfil plans, 260; malapropisms, 261; prudishness, 262; ceremonial routines, 263; peace overtures, 268–70, 299–300; builds up army against Austria, 270–2; leaves Paris to command against Austria, 272; crosses Alps, 273; Marengo victory, 276–8, 280; moodiness, 279; profits from rumours, 279; scheming over succession to, 279–80; commemorative ceremonies, 280–1; assassination plots against, 283–4, 294–6, 318, 342, 467; at Malmaison, 284, 303–4; interest in money, 284–5; supervises Civil Code, 286–7; supervises Council of State, 287–8; industriousness, 288–9; relations with army, 289–90, 317–18; and restoration of Catholic Church’s status, 292, 306–7; uses senatus-consulte against criminal activities, 295; policy of isolating Britain, 300; satirised and caricatured in Britain, 301, 332–3, 340, 369; and Treaty of Amiens with Britain, 302–3; health concerns, 303; happy marriage relations with Josephine, 305; political hostility to, 308; elected president of Cisalpine Republic in Lyon meeting, 309–10; celebrates Concordat, 313–14; educational reforms, 316, 390–1; denies ambitiousness, 317; proposed extension of powers, 318–19; succession question, 319–20, 357, 365; made consul for life (1802), 320, 322–3; dismisses Bourrienne and appoints Méneval as secretary, 321; intelligence network, 321, 343; reintroduces court ceremonial, 322; revises constitution (1802), 323; thirty-third birthday celebrated, 323; moves to Saint-Cloud, 324; progress through Normandy, 324–5; grants amnesty to émigrés, 325; prepares Paris for foreign visitors, 326; develops economic and political power of France in peace period, 327–8; and trade rivalry with Britain, 327; colonial policy, 329–30; accuses Britain of harbouring hostile émigrés, 332; and Recess of Ratisbon, 333; expansionist policy, 334–5; horseriding and driving, 336; hunting, 336, 364, 367, 386, 392, 394, 428, 440, 468, 474, 476, 486, 511, 574; self-regard, 336–7; plans invasion of England, 339–41, 360–2, 364, 374–5; reaction to British declaration of war (1803), 339; British plan to capture and send into exile, 340; clumsy foreign relations, 342; and royalist conspiracy, 343–5, 349; orders arrest and trial of Enghien, 345–8; distrust of Talleyrand, 348; seen as indispensable single ruler, 349–50; proposed and nominated as emperor, 350–2; reactions to status as emperor, 353–6; and trial and fate of conspirators, 354; titles and ranks under, 357; coronation, 359, 367–70; sense of destiny, 363; optimism in preparations for war, 364; suffers fit, 364; secret religious marriage to Josephine, 368; proposes new peace settlement to George III (1805), 371; crowned King of Italy, 372–3; travelling coach, 372; reintroduces Gregorian calendar, 376; campaign against Austria (1805), 377–81; Austerlitz victory, 383–4; Francis I recognises as King of Italy, 385; and French financial crisis (1806), 387–8; private treasury (Domaine extraordinaire), 388; presence at meetings, 390; social/legal reforms, 390–1; changing relations with Josephine, 392; dress as emperor, 392; entertainments, 394; disdain for other rulers and administration, 395; pan-European organisation, 397–8; creates imperial nobility and grants titles, 398; son by Éléonore de la Plaigne, 398, 622; court ceremonial, 399, 480–1; maintains simplicity and modesty, 399; in peace negotiations (1806), 401; dismisses Prussia as unimportant and undeveloped, 402–3, 405; campaign against Prussia and Russia, 403–4; blockade of Britain (Continental System), 405–6, 496–7; proposes founding Polish state, 407; in Poland, 409–10; affair with Maria Walewska, 410–13, 428, 466, 602; agrees Treaty of Tilsit with Tsar Alexander, 415–16; snubs Queen Luise of Prussia, 416; returns to Paris after Tilsit, 418; popular indifference to victories, 419; aloofness and exercise of power, 420; distributes titles and honours, 420; directs foreign policy, 421; tours Italian dominions, 425; browbeats Pope, 426–7; orders seizure of ships complying with British decrees, 427; sends troops and travels to Spain, 429–31; makes Joseph King of Spain, 430–4; orders travelling library, 432; and military actions in Spain, 435; withholds troops from Spain, 436; meets Tsar Alexander at Erfurt, 437–43; proposes joint offensive with Russia against British India, 437; urged to divorce Josephine, 437; sense of insecurity, 443–4; revisits Spain, 444–6; learns of conspiracies in France, 446–7; returns to Paris from Spain, 447–8; dismisses and insults Talleyrand, 448; campaign against Austria (1809), 449–53; travelling comforts, 449–50; wounded at Ratisbon, 450; at battle of Wagram, 454–6; seen as oppressor in Europe, 457, 460; contradictory imperial principles and practice, 459–60; declining popular support for, 462, 464, 561; Pope excommunicates and anathematises, 463; unchanging military practices, 464–5; criticised by senior military officers, 465; at Schönbrunn, 466; decides to divorce Josephine, 468–70; remarriage question, 472; marriage to Marie-Louise, 473–5; dismisses Fouché, 477; honeymoon tour and festivities, 477–9; acts against Holland, 478–9; adopts new walk, 480; wealth, 481; generosity and human behaviour, 483–4; marriage relations with Marie-Louise, 486, 492; puts on weight, 486–7; and birth of son by Marie-Louise, 487–9; economic concerns, 491–2; divides Spain into military provinces, 492; Polish policy, 494–5, 498; and Russian demands over Poland, 494–5; reluctance to go to war against Russia, 497–9, 503–4, 507, 511; closes down Council of French bishops, 502; assembles army for Russian campaign, 505; prepares for Russian war, 505, 507–15; bad omen at Niemen, 516; behaviour on Russian campaign, 516–24; and difficult conditions in adva
nce to Russia, 517; resolves to advance on Moscow, 523, 525; awards and honours on battlefield, 524; at Borodino, 527–9; suffers dysuria, 527, 638; occupies Moscow, 530–5; attempts to contact Alexander after fall of Moscow, 531–2; withdrawal from Moscow, 535; in retreat from Russia, 536–43; leaves Grande Armée at Vilna and returns to Paris, 543–7; condition after Russian experience, 548; disturbed by reaction to news of supposed death, 549; raises troops after Russian expedition, 549–51; speech to Legislative Assembly, 554; leaves Paris to oppose Russians and Prussians, 555; plans advance into Poland, 555; fantasises about Marie-Louise and son being murdered by mob, 558; rejects Metternich’s negotiating terms, 558; in war against Russia and Prussia, 558–60; agrees armistice (1813), 560–1; meets and mistrusts Metternich, 562–3; campaign against allies (1813), 566–72; conscription advanced, 573–4; manpower shortage, 573–4; behaviour in Paris after Leipzig, 574–5; and Metternich’s Frankfurt peace terms, 576–7; unable to take long view, 577; decrees levée en masse to mobilise forces, 578; sees wife and son for last time, 579; war with allies (1813–14), 580–1; ‘in bond to glory’, 582; personal leadership in battles, 584; plans to attack allies from rear, 584; learns of surrender of Paris, 586; advised to abdicate, 587; abdicates and banished to Elba, 588–91, 593; and successor government in France, 591; belief in power to control, 592; ratifies Treaty of Fontainebleau, 594–5; supposed suicide attempts, 594, 620; travels to Elba, 598–9; life on Elba, 600–3; receives intelligence from informers, 603; vulnerability to assassination and kidnap, 603; plots return to France from Elba and embarks, 605; lands on French soil and marches to Paris, 606; physical deterioration, 609; political aims on return, 610–14; organises Champ de mai, 611; abolishes slave trade, 612; faces invasion by allies, 612, 614; boasts of popularity, 615; final campaign against allies, 616; Waterloo defeat, 617–20; prepares for flight to America, 621–3; refuses to abdicate, 621; protests at banishment to St Helena, 625; on voyage to St Helena, 626–7; life on St Helena, 627–39; sends complaints to British government, 629; dislikes Hudson Lowe, 634, 637; receives books at St Helena, 635–6; affair with Albine de Montholon, 638; reminisces on St Helena, 639; illness and death on St Helena, 640–2; burial on St Helena, 643; dictates will, 643; reputation, 643–4; Clisson et Eugénie (novella), 89–90, 621; Le Comte d’Essex (novella), 39; Dialogue sur l’amour, 48; Lettre à Buttafocco, 47–8; Lettres sur la Corse, 41, 55; Le Masque Prophète (story), 39; Nouvelle Corse, 41; Le Souper de Beaucaire, 65, 68