Death in Florence: the Medici, Savonarola and the Battle for the Soul of the Renaissance City
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Medici (née d’Appiano), Semiramide de’, 61, 67
Medici bank
Cosimo de’ Medici increases fortunes of, 11
Cosimo seeks reinstatement as handlers of papal account, 13
and monopoly of Tolfa alum mines, 15–17, 28
Lorenzo instructed about, 17, 18
Cosimo fails to clarify ownership of, 18–19
Piero is made aware of state of, 19–20
Piero calls in loans, 20
reinstated as papal bankers, 28
suffers setbacks in alum trade, 29, 32
Lorenzo and Giovanni di Pierfrancesco de’ Medici inherit share of, 32
relationship with papacy deteriorates, 32
and monastery of San Marco, 55
management of large debts, 63
decline, 77–8, 79
and Portinari, 78–9
money diverted from Florentine exchequer to, 92–3
covers Giovanni’s debts in Pisa, 115
and Florentine economy, 131
Giovanni collects up assets of, 195
demise of, 198–9
brief references, 22, 25, 36, 65, 139, 197
Medici family
takes political power, 5, 11–12
patronage of the arts, 12–13, 30
and petition of Party of the Hill, 20–1
conspiracies against, 21–3, 33–4
ambitions for, 8, 25, 28, 75–80, 92, 115, 124, 369, 370
destruction of documents, 35, 64, 117
and monastery of San Marco, 54–5, 111, 195–6
divergence between two brances of, 65–6
continuing popularity as rulers, 119
loyalties of leading families switch to different branch of, 139–40, 174
family divisions deepen, 174
departure from Florence, 193–6
finances during exile, 199
opinion in Italy swings behind reinstatement of, 230
reinstated, then overthrown, 369
later generations of, 369–70
see also Medici bank; names of individuals
Mehmet the Conqueror, Sultan, 50–1
Michelangelo, 54, 130, 134–5, 147, 170, 179, 185, 235–6, 254n
Bacchus, 235
The Battle of the Centaurs, 6
Pietà, 236
Michelozzi, Michelozzo, 12, 30, 54
Milan
Lorenzo sent on mission to, 15
currency, 17
Piero the Gouty not certain of support from, 21
support for Piero, 21, 23
Florence unable to rely on support of, 34–5
Leonardo da Vinci sent to, 2, 6, 37
and war between Venice and Ferrara, 57, 58, 59
branch of Medici bank closed, 77
Lorenzo strengthens alliance with, 2, 92
and pro–Lombardy delegation to Rome, 154–5, 159–60
Ludovico Sforza refuses to hand power to his nephew in, 167–8
happy to welcome Charles VIII, 171
Piero the Unfortunate loosens dependence on, 171
Charles VIII welcomed into territory of, 178
Ludovico Sforza suspects the French of seeking to install rightful ruler of, 183–4
Ludovico Sforza has himself proclaimed rightful Duke of, 184
the French have doubts about alliance with Ludovico, 184–5
joins alliance against the French, 219–20
Pisa supported by ships from 255
and divisions among the allies, 258
brief references, 28, 44, 65, 132
Miniati, Antonio, 64, 77, 79, 92–3, 116, 117, 118, 130, 161, 212, 213
Mirandola, 52, 83, 100
Miromanda, 92
Mithridates, Flavio, 83, 147, 163
Monte Cassino, 92
Monte Cavo, 152
Monte delle Doti see Dowry Fund
Montefeltro, Federigo da, 23, 29, 34
Montepulciano, 30, 211
More, Sir Thomas, 82
Mugello valley, 64, 176, 182
Naples
troops sent into Florentine territory by King Ferrante, 34
Lorenzo the Magnificent succeeds in winning over, 3, 35
King Ferrante signs peace treaty with Florence, 36, 50
and war between Venice and Ferrara, 57, 59
branch of Medici bank in, 77
and marriage of Lorenzo’s son Piero, 80
Lorenzo strengthens alliance with, 92
Piero the Unfortunate seeks to strengthen ties with, 154
Ludovico Sforza fears intervention from, 167–8
Charles VIII’s claim to kingdom of, 168, 169, 171
throne claimed by Alfonso II on death of his father, 171
and French invasion, 171, 172, 174, 175, 177, 178, 205, 219
French army enters, 219
French army leaves, 220
brief references, 2, 15, 37, 61, 63, 65, 132, 155, 186, 258
Neoplatonic ideas, 81
Nero, Bernardo del, 268–9, 270–1, 272, 282–6, 299, 303
Nero, Francesco del, 272
Nero, Niccolò del, 303–4
Nero, Simone del, 303–4
Neroni, Archbishop, 21
Neroni, Dietisalvi, 19, 20
Neroni family, 20, 22, 23 see also names of individuals
Nesi, Giovanni, 149
New Testament, 52, 150, 288
Book of Revelation, 96, 137, 225 and n, 229
New World, 5, 219
Niccolini, Agnolo, 355–6
Niccolini, Jacopo, 360, 362
Noah’s Ark, theme of, 141–3, 162, 179, 188, 201
North Africa, 11, 164
Old Testament, 52, 95, 137, 150, 218, 225, 228–9, 238, 288, 302
Exodus, 292, 302
Ezekiel, 262, 266
Genesis, 46, 142, 179–80
Hosea, 168
Isaiah, 144
Oltrarno district, Florence, 20, 202, 248, 276
ordeal by fire, 304–15, 316–21, 339
Orsina, Alfonsina, 80, 92, 138–9
Orsini, Clarice see Medici (née Orsini), Clarice de’
Orsini, Paolo, 185, 191, 192, 193, 196
Orsini family, 58, 80 see also names of individuals
Ospedale degli Innocenti, Florence, 248 and n
Ostia, 158
Otranto, 51, 145
Ottoman Turks/Ottoman Empire, 14, 50–1, 145, 164, 169, 219, 226
Ovid, 260
Padua, 82
Pagagnotti, Benedetto, 362–3
Palazzo del Bargello see Bargello, Florence
Palazzo della Signoria, Florence
seat of government, 4, 12
Salviati attempts to seize, 33
renovation of, 54
lions kept in cage behind, 66
Savonarola delivers private sermon at, 103–4
and Giovanni de’ Medici’s ceremonial procession, 119
French detachment goes to, 190
Piero de’ Medici makes his way to, 191
Piero denied entry to, 192
French army passes, 203
discussion about new constitution at, 215
Great Hall in, 231–2, 254 and n, 340, 360
officials watch Bonfire of the Vanities from, 262
alleged traitors arrested at, 282
and ordeal by fire episode, 308, 309, 316, 317, 318, 319
proclamation offering reward for capture of Savonarola, 323
Mazzinghi goes to, 325–6
Savonarola and Fra Domenico taken to, 330
the three friars brought for execution from, 362
Palazzo Medici, Florence
and government of Florence, 12
designed by Michelozzi, 12
Lorenzo the Magnificent born at, 11
intellectual and artistic circle at, 13–14, 24, 30, 61, 64, 68–9, 83, 170
Palazzo Pitti is intended to dwarf, 20
during conspiracy against Piero the Gouty, 21, 22
and Lorenz
o and Giovanni di Pierfrancesco de’ Medici, 31, 66
Lorenzo makes speech from, during Pazzi conspiracy, 34
Savonarola refuses to pay courtesy visit to, 111
Savonarola returns gifts to, 112
ceremonial banquet for Giovanni’s installation as cardinal, 120
emotional atmosphere during rule of Piero the Unfortunate, 182
Charles VIII is offered the use of, 187
Piero returns from French camp to, 191
Piero and Giovanni barricade themselves inside, 193
Piero escapes from, 193
Giovanni remains for short time at, 194
Giovanni rescues valuables from, 194–5, 199
Balsac at, 197
protected from pillagers, 198
fire at, 198, 199
Charles VIII takes up residence at, 204
Savonarola goes to Charles VIII at, 207–8
omitted from itinerary of processions of
Savonarola’s boys, 248
brief references, 81, 82, 85, 91, 94, 119, 161, 172, 181
Palazzo Pitti, Florence, 20, 22
Palazzo Tornabuoni, Florence, 285
palio of Santa Barbara, 278n, 278–9
Papal Commission, 348, 349, 352–5, 356–7, 363
Parenti, Piero, 206, 265–6, 286–7, 318, 333
Paris, 82, 299
parlamento, 4, 211, 223 and n
Party of the Hill, 20–1, 27, 29
Party of the Plain, 20
Pastor, F. Ludwig von, 59–60
Paul II, Pope, 15, 16, 27, 28
Pavia, 167, 183, 184
Pazzi bank, 32, 34
Pazzi conspiracy, 6, 33–4, 49, 50, 63, 77
Pazzi family, 32–3, 34, 49 see also Pazzi conspiracy
Peter, St, 350–1
Petrarch, 136, 260
Piacenza, 95
Piagnoni
as main group of Savonarola’s supporters, 230, 231
and Botticelli and his brother, 236–7, 299–300
and Valori, 268, 284, 324, 326, 327
ridiculed, 279
measures taken to alleviate suffering of, 280
sympathisers in post as gonfaloniere, 286
sympathisers in Signoria, 298
and ordeal by fire episode, 316, 318, 320
aggression towards, 322
and siege of San Marco, 324, 326, 327
continue to support Savonarola after his arrest, 330
sympathisers flee from the city, 331
and Ser Ceccone, 332
sympathisers eliminated from administration, 333, 368
and news of Charles VIII’s death, 336
and Savonarola’s confession, 337
and public reading of Savonarola’s protocol, 341
leading supporters arrested, 341
sympathisers rounded up and scourged, 347
and Savonarola’s execution, 364
brief references, 238, 251, 285, 294, 297, 312, 348, 360, 369
Pianoro, 97
Piazza della Signoria, Florence
Piero de’ Medici forced to leave, 192–3
Giovanni de’ Medici and supporters forced to retreat from, 193
parlamento in, 211–12
citizens gather to welcome new Signoria in, 217
Bonfire of the Vanities in, 261–2, 296
patrolled by soldiers to prevent public demonstration, 283
ordeal by fire, 312–13, 315, 316–21
execution of Savonarola and two friars, 358, 362– 6
Pico della Mirandola, Gianfrancesco, 82, 100, 337
Pico della Mirandola, Giovanni
aristocratic descent, 52
appearance, 52
brilliant intellectual achievement, 52
first encounter with Savonarola, 51, 52–3
and Ficino, 67–8, 69, 81, 83, 85
introduced to intellectual circle at Palazzo Medici, 68–9
Poliziano impressed by, 68
impressed by Lorenzo the Magnificent, 68
discussions with Savonarola during his first period in Florence, 69–70, 81
and syncretism, 81 and n, 86, 150
Savonarola’s impressions of, 81–2
spends time in Paris, 82–3
brief period of residence at villa outside Mirandola, 83
plays host to Mithridates, 83
returns to Florence and composes treatise on love, 83–4
bisexuality, 84
romantic involvement with Margherita, 84–5
writes Nine Hundred Theses, 86–8
travels to Rome to publish his work, 88
reception of his work in Rome, 88–9
papal Brief condemns work of, 89
writes defence of his work, 89
flees to France, 90
detained on charge of heresy, 90
Lorenzo the Magnificent intervenes on behalf of, 90
allowed to travel to Florence, 90
charge of heresy remains, 90–1, 150–1
Lorenzo discusses Giovanni’s education with, 94
and invitation to Savonarola, 94
visits Savonarola for religious instruction, 99
gives away villa and estate, 99
considers joining Dominicans, 99, 148
discussions with Savonarola, 100
comparison of his philosophy with ideas of Savonarola, 101
hears sermon of Fra Mariano, 109
warning to Savonarola, 110
and the encounter between Lorenzo and Savonarola, 124
and Lorenzo’s funeral, 130
friendship and mutual respect of Savonarola, 147–8
lives with a woman, 148–9
encouraged to write by Savonarola, 149
transformation of his thought world, 150
needs to obtain pardon from pope, 151
consulted about languages for friars to learn, 163
remains involved with both Savonarola and Piero de’ Medici, 166
reaction to Savonarola’s sermon, 180
death, 208, 209–10
brief references, 77, 93, 105–6, 114, 122, 134, 154, 155, 182, 183, 195, 306, 342, 347
Writings:
Apology, 68
Commento, 83
Disputationes adversus astrologiam divinatricem (‘Against Astrological Prediction’) (possibly co-authored by Savonarola), 149–50, 151, 287
Nine Hundred Theses, 87–9; Apologia for, 89, 90
On the Dignity of Man, 89–90
Pietrasanta, 185, 186, 211
Pigello, 15
Piombino, 61
Pisa
branch of Medici bank in, 77
Giovanni de’ Medici studies at university in, 115
Savonarola visits in his role as Vicar General, 166
and the French, 185, 187, 190, 199–200, 203, 211
Florence stripped of, 211
Florentine trade affected by continuing independence of, 233–4, 252
conflict with Florence, 233–4, 252, 255–6, 257–8, 292
brief references, 35, 155, 253, 264
Pitti, Luca, 20, 21, 22 and n
Pitti bank, 20
Pius II, Pope, 13, 40
plague, 253 and n, 275, 279, 282, 285, 291
Plato, 14, 42, 67, 68, 80–1, 83, 87, 106, 238, 261, 299
Republic, 289
Symposium, 80–1
see also Platonism
Platonism, 42, 68, 69, 80, 93–4, 106, 238 see also Plato
Plotinus, 81, 87
Po delta, 46, 51
Poggio a Caiano, 4, 66
Poliziano, Angelo
early life, 30
invited to take up residence at Palazzo Medici, 30
becomes tutor to Lorenzo the Magnificent’s sons, 31
poetry, 30, 31
and education of Lorenzo and Giovanni di Pierfrancesco de’ Medici, 31
and Botticelli, 61, 67, 181, 182, 183
speaks highly of Lorenzo di Pierfrancesco, 61–2
&
nbsp; and Pico della Mirandola, 68, 69, 83, 84
in exile in Mantua, 91–2
and Savonarola, 106, 134, 147, 166, 181, 209, 210
and Fra Mariano da Genazzano, 107–8, 109
and last days of Lorenzo the Magnificent, 1, 2, 124–5
recounts meeting between Lorenzo and Savonarola, 124–5
and Lorenzo’s death, 9
on omens around the time of Lorenzo’s death, 128
and Lorenzo’s funeral, 130
death, 208–9, 210
brief references, 8, 75, 81, 93–4, 114, 126, 138, 154, 155, 163, 260
Writing: The Joust of Giuliano de’ Medici, 31
Pollaiuolo, Simone del, 232
Popoleschi, Piero, 298, 307, 316, 330, 348
Portinari, Tommaso, 78–9
Pratica, 283, 309, 310, 311, 347, 348, 355–6, 359
Prato, 27, 29, 304, 305
prestanze, 161–2
Pulci, Luigi, 24
The Joust of Lorenzo de’ Medici, 24, 31
Puritans, 370
Rapallo, 177
Reformation, 229, 369, 370
Reggio, 51, 52, 53
Remolino, Bishop Francesco, 349, 352, 353–5, 356, 357, 363, 366, 368
Renaissance
first comes to fruition in Florence, 2, 9, 10, 302
and patronage, 2, 18
new ideas of, 5–6, 60
new phase of, 60, 61
and philosophy, 87
in relation to spiritual malaise and dormant fears, 106–7
and prosperity, 131
and Rome, 139n, 236
interest in astrology runs parallel with ideas of, 149
spreads through Italy, 37, 234
and ordeal by fire, 313
and death of the old order, 371
brief references, 85, 150, 181, 238
see also names of artists and thinkers
Revelation, Book of, 96, 137, 225 and n, 229
Rheims, 62
Riario, Girolamo, 32, 51, 58–9
Riario, Cardinal Raffaele, 235
Ridolfi, Giovambattista, 286
Ridolfi, Niccolò, 282–6
Ridolfi, Roberto, 48, 73, 103, 114 and n, 123, 148–9, 166, 208, 221, 242, 329n, 361
Robespierre, Maximilien de, 249, 370
Romagna, the, 32, 203
Rome
Lorenzo the Magnificent sent on mission to, 15, 16–17
Medici bank in, 17, 18, 63, 77, 199
Lorenzo’s marriage to Clarice Orsini from leading family in, 25
Lorenzo attends coronation of Pope Sixtus IV in, 27–8
Botticelli sent to, 6, 37
Lorenzo sends his son Piero to, 75, 76
marriage of Piero further cements links with Orsini family in, 80
Pico della Mirandola in, 88–9, 90
Lorenzo in regular contact with, 93
Fra Mariano da Genazzano goes to, 110
Giovanni de’ Medici takes up post as cardinal in, 120
Lorenzo writes to Giovanni about, 120–1
death of Innocent VIII in, 133