36. Karin Fikkers, Jessica Taylor Piotrowski, Wouter D. Weeda, Helen G. M. Vossen, and Patti M. Valkenburg, “Double Dose: High Family Conflict Enhances the Effect of Media Violence Exposure on Adolescents’ Aggression,” Societies 3, no. 3 (2013).
37. Slater, Henry, Swaim, and Cardador, “Vulnerable Teens, Vulnerable Times.”
8. Media and Emotions
1. Nico H. Frijda, “The Laws of Emotion,” American Psychologist 43, no. 5 (1988).
2. Paul L. Harris, Understanding Children’s Worlds: The Work of the Imagination (Oxford: Blackwell, 2000).
3. Ibid.
4. Ron Tamborini and James B. Weaver, “Frightening Entertainment: A Historical Perspective of Fictional Horror,” in Horror Films: Current Research on Audience Preferences and Reactions, ed. Ron Tamborini and James B. Weaver (Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum, 1996).
5. Ibid.
6. Laura Pearce and Andy P. Field, “The Impact of ‘Scary’ TV and Film on Children’s Internalizing Emotions: A Meta-Analysis,” Human Communication Research 42, no. 1 (2015).
7. Eleonora Gullone, “The Development of Normal Fear: A Century of Research,” Clinical Psychology Review 20, no. 4 (2000).
8. Peter Muris, Harald Merckelbach, Björn Gadet, and Vénique Moulaert, “Fears, Worries, and Scary Dreams in 4- to 12-Year-Old Children: Their Content, Developmental Pattern, and Origins,” Journal of Clinical Child Psychology 29, no. 1 (2000).
9. Barbara J Wilson, Cynthia Hoffner, and Joanne Cantor, “Children’s Perceptions of the Effectiveness of Techniques to Reduce Fear from Mass Media,” Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology 8, no. 1 (1987).
10. Joanne Cantor and Glenn G. Sparks, “Children’s Fear Responses to Mass Media—Testing Some Piagetian Predictions,” Journal of Communication 34, no. 2 (1984).
11. Joanne Cantor, “Fright Reactions to Mass Media,” in Media Effects, ed. Jennings Bryant and Dolf Zillmann (Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum Mahwah, 2002).
12. Barbara J. Wilson, “Media and Children’s Aggression, Fear, and Altruism,” Future of Children 18, no. 1 (2008).
13. Unpublished recollection from a study by Patti Valkenburg among Dutch students.
14. Wilson, Hoffner, and Cantor, “Effectiveness of Techniques to Reduce Fear.”
15. Muris, Merckelbach, Gadet, and Moulaert, “Fears, Worries, and Scary Dreams.”
16. Unpublished recollection from a study by Patti Valkenburg among Dutch students.
17. Wilson, Hoffner, and Cantor, “Effectiveness of Techniques to Reduce Fear.”
18. Daniel J. Siegel, Brainstorm: The Power and Purpose of the Teenage Brain (New York: Penguin, 2013).
19. Kristen Harrison and Joanne Cantor, “Tales from the Screen: Enduring Fright Reactions to Scary Media,” Media Psychology 1, no. 2 (1999).
20. Michiel Van Ieperen, “De Aantrekkingskracht Van Horror Films En Horror Videogames” (master’s thesis, Utrecht University, 2013).
21. Ibid.
22. Joanne Cantor, Barbara Wilson, and Cynthia Hoffner, “Emotional Responses to a Televised Nuclear Holocaust Film,” Communication Research 13 (1986).
23. Silvia Knobloch-Westerwick, Yuan Gong, Holly Hagner, and Laura Kerbeykian, “Tragedy Viewers Count Their Blessings: Feeling Low on Fiction Leads to Feeling High on Life,” Communication Research 40 (2013).
24. Patti M. Valkenburg, Vierkante Ogen: Opvoeden Met TV En Pc (Amsterdam: Balans, 1997).
25. Cynthia A. Hoffner and Kenneth J. Levine, “Enjoyment of Mediated Fright and Violence: A Meta-Analysis,” Media Psychology 7, no. 2 (2005).
26. Lucretius, On the Nature of Things, book 2 (c. 50 BCE).
27. Leon Festinger, “A Theory of Social Comparison Processes,” Human Relations 7, no. 2 (1954).
28. Dolf Zillmann, “Attribution and Misattribution of Excitatory Reactions,” in New Directions in Attribution Research, ed. John H. Harvey, William Ickes, and Robert F. Kidd (Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum, 1978).
29. “Mood Management: Using Entertainment to Full Advantage,” in Communication, Social Cognition, and Affect, ed. Lewis Donohew, Howard E. Sypher, and Tory Higgins (Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum, 1988).
30. Ibid.
31. Jinhee Kim and Mary Beth Oliver, “How Do We Regulate Sadness through Entertainment Messages? Exploring Three Predictions,” Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media 57, no. 3 (2013).
32. Mary Beth Oliver and Arthur A. Raney, “Entertainment as Pleasurable and Meaningful: Identifying Hedonic and Eudaimonic Motivations for Entertainment Consumption,” Journal of Communication 61, no. 5 (2011).
33. Richard M. Ryan, Veronika Huta, and Edward L. Deci, “Living Well: A Self-Determination Theory Perspective on Eudaimonia,” Journal of Happiness Studies 9, no. 1 (2008).
34. Knobloch-Westerwick, Gong, Hagner, and Kerbeykian, “Tragedy Viewers Count Their Blessings.”
35. Ibid.
36. Marie-Louise Mares, Mary Beth Oliver, and Joanne Cantor, “Age Differences in Adults’ Emotional Motivations for Exposure to Films,” Media Psychology 11, no. 4 (2008).
37. At the time of this writing, this clip is viewable at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dgMMx5WSd6g.
38. Sandra L. Calvert and Jennifer A. Kotler, “Lessons from Children’s Television: The Impact of the Children’s Television Act on Children’s Learning,” Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology 24, no. 3 (2003).
39. Dimitri A Christakis et al., “Modifying Media Content for Preschool Children: A Randomized Controlled Trial,” Pediatrics 131, no. 3 (2013).
40. Maya Götz and Judith Schwarz, “Having and Showing Emotions,” Televizion 27 (2014).
41. Donald Horton and R. Richard Wohl, “Mass Communication and Para-Social Interaction,” Psychiatry 19, no. 3 (1956).
42. Alexis R. Lauricella, Alice Ann Howard Gola, and Sandra L. Calvert, “Toddlers’ Learning from Socially Meaningful Video Characters,” Media Psychology 14, no. 2 (2011).
43. Alice Ann Howard Gola, Melissa N. Richards, Alexis R. Lauricella, and Sandra L. Calvert, “Building Meaningful Parasocial Relationships between Toddlers and Media Characters to Teach Early Mathematical Skills,” Media Psychology 16, no. 4 (2013).
44. David C. Giles and John Maltby, “The Role of Media Figures in Adolescent Development: Relations between Autonomy, Attachment, and Interest in Celebrities,” Personality and Individual Differences 36, no. 4 (2004).
45. Byron Reeves and Clifford Nass, How People Treat Computers, Television, and New Media like Real People and Places (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996).
46. Astrid M. Rosenthal-von der Pütten et al., “Neural Correlates of Empathy towards Robots” (paper presented at the 8th ACM/IEEE International Conference On Human-Robot Interaction, Tokyo, Japan, 2013).
47. Rosenthal-von der Pütten et al., “Neural Correlates of Empathy Towards Robots.”
9. Advertising and Commercialism
Epigraph: Quoted in Consuming Kids: The Commercialization of Childhood (2008), directed by Adriana Barbaro and Jeremy Earp.
1. American Institute of CPAs, “What Parents Pay Kids for Allowance,” AICPA.org, www.aicpa.org/press/pressreleases/2012/pages/aicpa-survey-reveals-what-parents-pay-kids-for-allowance-grades.aspx.
2. Harriet N. Mischel and Walter Mischel, “The Development of Children’s Knowledge of Self-Control Strategies,” Child Development 53, no. 3 (1987).
3. Moniek Buijzen and Patti M. Valkenburg, “Observing Purchase-Related Parent-Child Communication in Retail Environments: A Developmental and Socialization Perspective,” Human Communication Research 34, no. 1 (2008).
4. Patti M. Valkenburg and Joanne Cantor, “The Development of a Child into a Consumer,” Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology 22, no. 1 (2001).
5. James U. McNeal, Kids as Customers: A Handbook of Marketing to Children (Lexington, Mass.: Lexington, 1992).
6. Junior Achievement USA, Teens and Personal Finance, https://www.juniorachievement.org/documents/20009/36541/2011-Teens-And-Personal-Finance-Poll.pdf/9bcedebc-8920-440b-8cbf
-f66f1c153951.
7. Brian Young, Television Advertising and Children (Oxford: Clarendon, 1990).
8. Deborah R. John, “Consumer Socialization of Children: A Retrospective Look at Twenty-Five Years of Research,” Journal of Consumer Research 26, no. 3 (1999).
9. James U. McNeal, The Kids Market: Myths and Realities (New York: Paramount, 1999).
10. Joann P. Galst and Mary A. White, “The Unhealthy Persuader: The Reinforcing Value of Television and Children’s Purchase-Influencing Attempts at the Supermarket,” Child Development 47, no. 4 (1976).
11. Buijzen and Valkenburg, “Purchase-Related Parent-Child Communication.”
12. Ibid.
13. Ibid.
14. McNeal, Kids as Customers.
15. Paul M. Fischer, Meyer Shwartz, John Richards, Adam Goldstein, and Tina Rojas, “Brand Logo Recognition by Children Aged 3 to 6 Years: Mickey Mouse and Old Joe the Camel,” JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association 266, no. 22 (1991).
16. Cynthia F. Hite and Robert E. Hite, “Reliance on Brand by Young Children,” Journal of the Market Research Society 37, no. 2 (1995).
17. Astrid Middelman and Birgitte Melzer, “The Importance of Brand Preference in Adolescence for Brand Loyalty Later On” (paper presented at the “Seminar on Marketing to Children and Young Consumers: Tactics for Today, and Strategies for Tomorrow,” Nuremberg, Germany, 1984).
18. George P. Moschis and Roy L. Moore, “A Study of the Acquisition of Desires for Products and Brands,” in The Changing Marketing Environment: New Theories and Applications, ed. Kenneth Bernardt et al. (Chicago: American Marketing Association, 1981).
19. Peter Zollo, Wise Up to Teens: Insights into Marketing and Advertising to Teenagers (Ithaca, N.Y.: New Strategist, 1997).
20. Common Sense Media, Advertising to Children and Teens: Current Practices (San Francisco: Common Sense Media, 2014).
21. Bridget Kelly et al., “Television Food Advertising to Children: A Global Perspective,” American Journal of Public Health 100, no. 9 (2010).
22. Lucia Moses, “A Look at Kids’ Exposure to Ads: Children See a Lot of Marketing Messages, Regardless of Platform,” Adweek, March 11, 2014.
23. Anna E. Henry and Mary Story, “Food and Beverage Brands That Market to Children and Adolescents on the Internet: A Content Analysis of Branded Web Sites,” Journal of Nutrition Education and Behavior 41, no. 5 (2009).
24. McNeal, Kids as Customers; Patti M. Valkenburg and Moniek Buijzen, “Identifying Determinants of Young Children’s Brand Awareness: Television, Parents, and Peers,” Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology 26, no. 4 (2005).
25. Fischer et al., “Brand Logo Recognition by Children”; Valkenburg and Buijzen, “Young Children’s Brand Awareness.”
26. Monica D. Hernandez and Sindy Chapa, “Adolescents, Advergames and Snack Foods: Effects of Positive Affect and Experience on Memory and Choice,” Journal of Marketing Communications 16, nos. 1–2 (2010).
27. M. Carole Macklin, “Do Children Understand TV Ads?,” Journal of Advertising Research 23, no. 1 (1983).
28. Gerald J. Gorn and Renee Florsheim, “The Effects of Commercials for Adult Products on Children,” Journal of Consumer Research 11, no. 4 (1985).
29. Scott Ward, Daniel B. Wackman, and Ellen Wartella, How Children Learn to Buy: The Development of Consumer Information-Processing Skills (Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage, 1977).
30. Valkenburg and Buijzen, “Young Children’s Brand Awareness.”
31. Scott Ward and Daniel B. Wackman, “Family and Media Influences on Adolescent Consumer Learning,” American Behavioral Scientist 14, no. 3 (1971).
32. Simon Hudson and Charlene Elliott, “Measuring the Impact of Product Placement on Children Using Digital Brand Integration,” Journal of Food Products Marketing 19, no. 3 (2013).
33. Charles K. Atkin, The Effects of Television Advertising on Children: Survey of Pre-Adolescent’s Responses to Television Commercials; Report no. 6 (East Lansing: Michigan State University, 1975).
34. Dina L. G. Borzekowski and Thomas N. Robinson, “The 30-Second Effect: An Experiment Revealing the Impact of Television Commercials on Food Preferences of Preschoolers,” Journal of the American Dietetic Association 101, no. 1 (2001).
35. Charles K. Atkin, The Effects of Television Advertising on Children: Second Year of Experimental Evidence (East Lansing: Michigan State University, 1975).
36. Gorn and Florsheim, “Effects of Commercials for Adult Products.”
37. Moniek Buijzen and Patti M. Valkenburg, “The Impact of Television Advertising on Children’s Christmas Wishes,” Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media 44, no. 3 (2000).
38. For a review, see Moniek Buijzen and Patti M. Valkenburg, “The Effects of Television Advertising on Materialism, Parent-Child Conflict, and Unhappiness: A Review of Research,” Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology 24, no. 4 (2003).
39. Kara Chan, Yu Leung Ng, and Edwin K. Luk, “Impact of Celebrity Endorsement in Advertising on Brand Image among Chinese Adolescents,” Young Consumers 14, no. 2 (2013); Jyh-shen Chiou, Chien-yi Huang, and Min-chieh Chuang, “Antecedents of Taiwanese Adolescents’ Purchase Intention toward the Merchandise of a Celebrity: The Moderating Effect of Celebrity Adoration,” Journal of Social Psychology 145, no. 3 (2005); Craig A. Martin and Alan J. Bush, “Do Role Models Influence Teenagers’ Purchase Intentions and Behavior?,” Journal of Consumer Marketing 17, no. 5 (2000).
40. Gene H. Brody, Zolinda Stoneman, T. Scott Lane, and Alice K. Sanders, “Television Food Commercials Aimed at Children, Family Grocery Shopping, and Mother-Child Interactions,” Family Relations 30, no. 3 (1981).
41. Susan Auty and Charlie Lewis, “Exploring Children’s Choice: The Reminder Effect of Product Placement,” Psychology and Marketing 21, no. 9 (2004).
42. L. J. Shrum, James E. Burroughs, and Aric Rindfleisch, “Television’s Cultivation of Material Values,” Journal of Consumer Research 32, no. 3 (2005).
43. Buijzen and Valkenburg, “Effects of Television Advertising on Materialism.”
44. Suzanna J. Opree, Moniek Buijzen, Eva A. van Reijmersdal, and Patti M. Valkenburg, “Children’s Advertising Exposure, Advertised Product Desire, and Materialism: A Longitudinal Study,” Communication Research 41, no. 5 (2014).
45. Buijzen and Valkenburg, “Effects of Television Advertising on Materialism.”
46. Ibid.
47. Marvin E. Goldberg and Gerald J. Gorn, “Some Unintended Consequences of TV Advertising to Children,” Journal of Consumer Research 5, no. 1 (1978).
48. World Health Organization, Obesity and Overweight (Geneva: World Health Organization, 2015).
49. Commission on Ending Childhood Obesity, Facts and Figures on Childhood Obesity (Geneva: World Health Organization, 2014).
50. Marie Ng et al., “Global, Regional, and National Prevalence of Overweight and Obesity in Children and Adults during 1980–2013: A Systematic Analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013,” Lancet 384, no. 9945 (2014).
51. Lisa M. Powell, Glen Szczypka, Frank J. Chaloupka, and Carol L. Braunschweig, “Nutritional Content of Television Food Advertisements Seen by Children and Adolescents in the United States,” Pediatrics 120, no. 3 (2007).
52. Kelly et al., “Television Food Advertising to Children.”
53. Moniek Buijzen, Joris Schuurman, and Elise Bomhof, “Associations between Children’s Television Advertising Exposure and Their Food Consumption Patterns: A Household Diary-Survey Study,” Appetite 50, no. 2 (2008).
54. Tatiana Andreyeva, Inas Rashad Kelly, and Jennifer L. Harris, “Exposure to Food Advertising on Television: Associations with Children’s Fast Food and Soft Drink Consumption and Obesity,” Economics and Human Biology 9, no. 3 (2011).
55. Jennifer L. Harris, John A. Bargh, and Kelly D. Brownell, “Priming Effects of Television Food Advertising on Eating Behavior,” Health Psychology 28, no. 4 (2009).
56. Buijzen and Valkenburg, “Observing Purchase-Related Parent-Chi
ld Communication.”
57. Elizabeth S. Moore and Richard J. Lutz, “Children, Advertising, and Product Experiences: A Multimethod Inquiry,” Journal of Consumer Research 27, no. 1 (2000).
58. Richard E. Petty and John T. Cacioppo, “The Elaboration Likelihood Model of Persuasion,” in Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, ed. Leonard Berkowitz (New York: Academic Press, 1986).
59. Alice H. Eagly and Shelly Chaiken, The Psychology of Attitudes (Fort Worth, Tex.: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1993).
60. Moniek Buijzen, Eva A. van Reijmersdal, and Laura H. Owen, “Introducing the PCMC Model: An Investigative Framework for Young People’s Processing of Commercialized Media Content,” Communication Theory 20, no. 4 (2010).
61. Laura Owen, Charles Lewis, Susan Auty, and Moniek Buijzen, “Is Children’s Understanding of Nontraditional Advertising Comparable to Their Understanding of Television Advertising?,” Journal of Public Policy and Marketing 32, no. 2 (2013).
62. Esther Rozendaal, Moniek Buijzen, and Patti M. Valkenburg, “Do Children’s Cognitive Advertising Defenses Reduce Their Desire for Advertised Products?,” Communications: The European Journal of Communication Research 34, no. 3 (2009).
63. Sonia Livingstone and Ellen J. Helsper, “Does Advertising Literacy Mediate the Effects of Advertising on Children? A Critical Examination of Two Linked Research Literatures in Relation to Obesity and Food Choice,” Journal of Communication 56, no. 3 (2006).
10. Media and Sex
Epigraph: Herbert Blumer, Movies and Conduct (New York: Macmillan, 1933). Blumer’s study was part of the famous Payne Fund Studies (for a discussion, see chapter 3).
1. American Psychological Association [APA], Report of the APA Task Force on the Sexualization of Girls (Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association, 2007).
2. Ibid., 1.
3. Cas Wouters, “Sexualization: Have Sexualization Processes Changed Direction?,” Sexualities 13, no. 6 (2010).
4. Ibid.
5. Brian McNair, Striptease Culture: Sex, Media, and the Democratization of Desire (East Sussex, UK: Psychology Press, 2002).
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