6. APA, Report on the Sexualization of Girls.
7. Kari Lerum and Shari L Dworkin, “Bad Girls Rule: An Interdisciplinary Feminist Commentary on the Report of the APA Task Force on the Sexualization of Girls,” Journal of Sex Research 46, no. 4 (2009).
8. Dale Kunkel et al., “Sex on TV 4: A Biennial Report to the Kaiser Family Foundation” (Menlo Park, Calif.: Kaiser Family Foundation, 2005).
9. Amy Bleakley, Patrick E. Jamieson, and Daniel Romer, “Trends of Sexual and Violent Content by Gender in Top-Grossing U.S. Films, 1950–2006,” Journal of Adolescent Health 51, no. 1 (2012).
10. Rami Al-Sayed and Barrie Gunter, “How Much Sex Is There in Soap Operas on British TV?,” Communications: The European Journal of Communication Research 37, no. 4 (2012).
11. Mark Callister, Lesa A. Stern, Sarah M. Coyne, Tom Robinson, and Emily Bennion, “Evaluation of Sexual Content in Teen-Centered Films from 1980 to 2007,” Mass Communication and Society 14, no. 4 (2011).
12. Jennifer Stevens Aubrey, “Sex and Punishment: An Examination of Sexual Consequences and the Sexual Double Standard in Teen Programming,” Sex Roles 50, nos. 7–8 (2004).
13. Mark Callister et al., “A Content Analysis of the Prevalence and Portrayal of Sexual Activity in Adolescent Literature,” Journal of Sex Research 49, no. 5 (2011).
14. Maya Götz et al., “Gender in Children’s Television Worldwide,” Televizion 21 (2008).
15. Celeste Lacroix, “Images of Animated Others: The Orientalization of Disney’s Cartoon Heroines from the Little Mermaid to the Hunchback of Notre Dame,” Popular Communication 2, no. 4 (2004).
16. APA, Report on the Sexualization of Girls.
17. Shari L Dworkin and Faye Wachs, Body Panic (New York: NYU Press, 2009).
18. Barrie Gunter, Media and the Sexualization of Childhood (London: Routledge, 2014).
19. Amir Hetsroni, “Three Decades of Sexual Content on Prime-Time Network Programming: A Longitudinal Meta-Analytic Review,” Journal of Communication 57, no. 2 (2007).
20. Amy Slater, Marika Tiggemann, Kimberley Hawkins, and Douglas Werchon, “Just One Click: A Content Analysis of Advertisements on Teen Web Sites,” Journal of Adolescent Health 50, no. 4 (2012).
21. Percentages based on ongoing CcaM research by Johanna van Oosten and Jochen Peter among 2,137 adolescents.
22. Amy Bleakley, Michael Hennessy, and Martin Fishbein, “A Model of Adolescents’ Seeking of Sexual Content in Their Media Choices,” Journal of Sex Research 48, no. 4 (2010).
23. Al Cooper, “Sexuality and the Internet: Surfing into the New Millennium,” CyberPsychology and Behavior 1, no. 2 (1998).
24. Ana J. Bridges, Robert Wosnitzer, Erica Scharrer, Chyng Sun, and Rachael Liberman, “Aggression and Sexual Behavior in Best-Selling Pornography Videos: A Content Analysis Update,” Violence against Women 16, no. 10 (2010).
25. Marleen J. E. Klaassen and Jochen Peter, “Gender (In)Equality in Internet Pornography: A Content Analysis of Popular Pornographic Internet Videos,” Journal of Sex Research 52, no. 7 (2015).
26. Victor C. Strasburger, Amy B. Jordan, and Ed Donnerstein, “Health Effects of Media on Children and Adolescents,” Pediatrics 125, no. 4 (2010).
27. Linda Duits and Liesbet Van Zoonen, “Coming to Terms with Sexualization,” European Journal of Cultural Studies 14, no. 5 (2011).
28. Lerum and Dworkin, “Bad Girls Rule.”
29. Rebecca L. Collins, Marc N. Elliott, Sandra H. Berry, David E. Kanouse, and Sarah B. Hunter, “Entertainment Television as a Healthy Sex Educator: The Impact of Condom-Efficacy Information in an Episode of Friends,” Pediatrics 112, no. 5 (2003).
30. Jochen Peter and Patti M. Valkenburg, “Adolescents and Pornography: A Review of 20 Years of Research,” Journal of Sex Research 53, no. 4–5 (2016).
31. L. Monique Ward and Kimberly Friedman, “Using TV as a Guide: Associations between Television Viewing and Adolescents’ Sexual Attitudes and Behavior,” Journal of Research on Adolescence 16, no. 1 (2006).
32. Jochen Peter and Patti M. Valkenburg, “Adolescents’ Exposure to Sexually Explicit Online Material and Recreational Attitudes toward Sex,” Journal of Communication 56, no. 4 (2006).
33. Tom F. M. Ter Bogt, Rutger C. M. E. Engels, Sanne Bogers, and Monique Kloosterman, “‘Shake It Baby, Shake It’: Media Preferences, Sexual Attitudes and Gender Stereotypes among Adolescents,” Sex Roles 63, nos. 11–12 (2010).
34. Jochen Peter and Patti M. Valkenburg, “Adolescents’ Exposure to Sexually Explicit Internet Material and Notions of Women as Sex Objects: Assessing Causality and Underlying Processes,” Journal of Communication 59, no. 3 (2009).
35. Jochen Peter, “Media and Sexual Development,” in The Routledge Handbook of Children, Adolescents, and the Media, ed. Dafna Lemish (London: Routledge, 2013).
36. Collins et al., “Entertainment Television as a Healthy Sex Educator.”
37. Autumn Shafer, Piotr Bobkowski, and Jane D. Brown, “Sexual Media Practice: How Adolescents Select, Engage with, and Are Affected by Sexual Media,” in The Oxford Handbook of Media Psychology, ed. Karen E. Dill (New York: Oxford University Press, 2013).
38. Hanneke de Graaf et al., Seks Onder Je 25e: Seksuele Gezondheid Van Jongeren in Nederland Anno 2012 [Sex under 25 years: Sexual health among Dutch youth] (Delft: Eburon, 2012).
39. Wendell S. Dysinger and Christian A. Ruckmick, The Emotional Responses of Children to the Motion Picture Situation (New York: Macmillan, 1933).
40. Jochen Peter and Patti M. Valkenburg, “Adolescents’ Exposure to Sexually Explicit Internet Material and Sexual Preoccupancy: A Three-Wave Panel Study,” Media Psychology 11, no. 2 (2008).
41. Peter, “Media and Sexual Development.”
42. Jochen Peter and Patti M. Valkenburg, “Adolescents’ Use of Sexually Explicit Internet Material and Sexual Uncertainty: The Role of Involvement and Gender,” Communication Monographs 77, no. 3 (2010).
43. “Adolescents’ Exposure to Sexually Explicit Internet Material and Sexual Satisfaction: A Longitudinal Study,” Human Communication Research 35, no. 2 (2009).
44. Rebecca L. Collins, Steven C. Martino, Marc N. Elliott, and Angela Miu, “Relationships between Adolescent Sexual Outcomes and Exposure to Sex in Media: Robustness to Propensity-Based Analysis,” Developmental Psychology 47, no. 2 (2011).
45. Jane D. Brown and Kelly L. L’Engle, “X-Rated Sexual Attitudes and Behaviors Associated with U.S. Early Adolescents’ Exposure to Sexually Explicit Media,” Communication Research 36, no. 1 (2009).
46. Amy Bleakley, Michael Hennessy, Martin Fishbein, and Amy Jordan, “It Works Both Ways: The Relationship between Exposure to Sexual Content in the Media and Adolescent Sexual Behavior,” Media Psychology 11, no. 4 (2008).
47. Laura Vanderbosch and Steven Eggermont, “Sexually Explicit Websites and Sexual Initiation: Reciprocal Relationships and the Moderating Role of Pubertal Status,” Journal of Research on Adolescence 23, no. 4 (2013).
48. For a review of these studies, see Peter, “Media and Sexual Development.”
49. United Nations Population Fund, Motherhood in Childhood: Facing the Challenge of Adolescent Pregnancy (New York: UNFPA, 2013).
50. Marie-Thérèse Luder et al., “Associations between Online Pornography and Sexual Behavior among Adolescents: Myth or Reality?,” Archives of Sexual Behavior 40, no. 5 (2011).
51. Jochen Peter and Patti M. Valkenburg, “The Influence of Sexually Explicit Internet Material on Sexual Risk Behavior: A Comparison of Adolescents and Adults,” Journal of Health Communication 16, no. 7 (2011).
52. Michele L. Ybarra and Kimberly J. Mitchell, “‘Sexting’ and Its Relation to Sexual Activity and Sexual Risk Behavior in a National Survey of Adolescents,” Journal of Adolescent Health 55, no. 6 (2014).
53. Bruce E. Pinkleton, Erica Weintraub Austin, Yi-Chun Chen, and Marilyn Cohen, “The Role of Media Literacy in Shaping Adolescents’ Understanding of and Responses to Sexual Portrayals in Mass Media,” Journal of Health Communi
cation 17, no. 4 (2012).
54. Kylene Guse et al., “Interventions Using New Digital Media to Improve Adolescent Sexual Health: A Systematic Review,” Journal of Adolescent Health 51, no. 6 (2012).
11. Media and Education
1. John L. Sherry, “Formative Research for STEM Educational Games,” Zeitschrift für Psychologie 221, no. 2 (2013).
2. Gerald S. Lesser and Joel Schneider, “Creation and Evolution of the Sesame Street Curriculum,” in “G” Is for Growing, ed. Shalom M. Fisch and Rosemarie Truglio (Mahwah, N.J.: Erlbaum, 2001).
3. Joseph E. Zins, Michelle R. Bloodworth, Roger P. Weissberg, and Herbert J. Walberg, The Scientific Base Linking Social and Emotional Learning to School Success (New York: Teachers College Press, 2004).
4. Marie-Louise Mares, “Educational Television,” in Sage Handbook of Media Processes and Effects, ed. Robin L. Nabi and Mary Beth Oliver (Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage, 2009).
5. Victoria J. Rideout, “Learning at Home: Families’ Educational Media Use in America” (New York: Joan Ganz Cooney Center at Sesame Workshop, 2014).
6. Daniel R. Anderson and Stephen R. Levin, “Young Children’s Attention to Sesame Street,” Child Development 47, no. 3 (1976).
7. Ellen A. Wartella, Vicky Rideout, Alexis R. Lauricella, and Sabrina L. Connell, Parenting in the Age of Digital Technology: A National Survey (Evanston, Ill.: School of Communication, Northwestern University, 2013).
8. Victoria J. Rideout, Elizabeth A. Vandewater, and Ellen A. Wartella, Zero to Six: Electronic Media in the Lives of Infants, Toddlers and Preschoolers (Menlo Park, Calif.: Kaiser Family Foundation, 2003).
9. Matthew A. Lapierre and Sarah E. Vaala, “Predictors of Baby Video/DVD Ownership: Findings from a National Sample of American Parents with Young Children,” Journal of Children and Media 9, no. 2 (2015).
10. Rideout, “Learning at Home.”
11. Ibid.
12. Sandra L. Calvert and Jennifer A. Kotler, “Lessons from Children’s Television: The Impact of the Children’s Television Act on Children’s Learning,” Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology 24, no. 3 (2003).
13. See the documentary The World According to Sesame Street, directed by Linda Goldstein-Knowlton and Linda Hawkins (Los Angeles: Participant Productions, 2006), DVD.
14. Albert Bandura, Social Foundations of Thought and Action: A Social Cognitive Theory (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1986).
15. Marie-Louise Mares, Edward Palmer, and Tia Sullivan, “Prosocial Effects of Media Exposure,” in The Handbook of Children, Media, and Development, ed. Sandra L. Calvert and Barbara Wilson (New York: Wiley, 2008).
16. Shalom M. Fisch, “A Capacity Model of Children’s Comprehension of Educational Content on Television,” Media Psychology 2, no. 1 (2000).
17. Jessica T. Piotrowski, “The Relationship between Narrative Processing Demands and Young American Children’s Comprehension of Educational Television,” Journal of Children and Media 8, no. 3 (2014).
18. Katherine E. Buckley and Craig A. Anderson, “A Theoretical Model of the Effects and Consequences of Playing Video Games,” in Playing Video Games: Motives, Responses, and Consequences, ed. Peter Vorderer and Jennings Bryant (London: Routledge, 2006).
19. Douglas A. Gentile et al., “The Effects of Prosocial Video Games on Prosocial Behaviors: International Evidence from Correlational, Longitudinal, and Experimental Studies,” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 35, no. 6 (2009).
20. Mary L. Courage and Mark L. Howe, “To Watch or Not to Watch: Infants and Toddlers in a Brave New Electronic World,” Developmental Review 30, no. 2 (2010).
21. Rachel Barr, Paul Muentener, Amaya Garcia, Melissa Fujimoto, and Verónica Chávez, “The Effect of Repetition on Imitation from Television during Infancy,” Developmental Psychobiology 49, no. 2 (2007).
22. Alexis R. Lauricella, Alice A. Gola, and Sandra L. Calvert, “Toddlers’ Learning from Socially Meaningful Video Characters,” Media Psychology 14, no. 2 (2011); for a review, see Deborah L. Linebarger and Sarah E. Vaala, “Screen Media and Language Development in Infants and Toddlers: An Ecological Perspective,” Developmental Review 30, no. 2 (2010).
23. Heather L. Kirkorian, Koeun Choi, and Tiffany A. Pempek, “Toddlers’ Word Learning from Contingent and Non-Contingent Video on Touchscreens,” Child Development (in press).
24. Linebarger and Vaala, “Screen Media and Language Development.”
25. Shalom M. Fisch, Children’s Learning from Educational Television (Mahwah, N.J.: Erlbaum, 2004).
26. Marie-Louise L. Mares and Zhongdang D. Pan, “Effects of Sesame Street: A Meta-Analysis of Children’s Learning in 15 Countries,” Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology 34, no. 3 (2013).
27. Deborah L. Linebarger, “Super Why! to the Rescue: Can Preschoolers Learn Early Literacy Skills from Educational Television?,” International Journal of Cross-Disciplinary Subjects in Education 6, no. 1 (2015).
28. Deborah L. Linebarger, Anjelika Z. Kosanic, Charles R. Greenwood, and Nil Sai Doku, “Effects of Viewing the Television Program Between the Lions on the Emergent Literacy Skills of Young Children,” Journal of Educational Psychology 96, no. 2 (2004).
29. For more information about these programs and accompanying studies, see Fisch, Children’s Learning from Educational Television.
30. Daniel R. Anderson et al., “Early Childhood Television Viewing and Adolescent Behavior: The Recontact Study,” Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development 66, no. 1 (2001).
31. Shalom M. Fisch, The Impact of “Cyberchase” on Children’s Mathematical Problem Solving (Teaneck, N.J.: MediaKidz Research and Consulting, 2003).
32. For a review, see Fisch, Children’s Learning from Educational Television.
33. Victor C. Strasburger, Barbara J. Wilson, and Amy B. Jordan, Children, Adolescents, and the Media (Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage, 2009).
34. Joyce N. Sprafkin, Robert M. Liebert, and Rita Wicks Poulos, “Effects of a Prosocial Televised Example on Children’s Helping,” Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 20, no. 1 (1975).
35. Strasburger, Wilson, and Jordan, Children, Adolescents, and the Media.
36. Dale Kunkel, “Policy Battles over Defining Children’s Educational Television,” American Academy of Political and Social Science 557, no. 1 (1998).
37. Marie-Louise Mares and Emory Woodard, “Positive Effects of Television on Children’s Social Interaction: A Meta-Analysis,” in Mass Media Effects Research: Advances through Meta-Analysis, ed. Raymond W. Preiss, et al. (Mahwah, N.J.: Erlbaum, 2007).
38. Rebecca N. H. de Leeuw, Mariska Kleemans, Esther Rozendaal, Doeschka J. Anschütz, and Moniek Buijzen, “The Impact of Prosocial Television News on Children’s Prosocial Behavior: An Experimental Study in the Netherlands,” Journal of Children and Media 9, no. 4 (2015).
39. Gentile et al., “Effects of Prosocial Video Games”; see also Sara Prot et al., “Long-Term Relations among Prosocial-Media Use, Empathy, and Prosocial Behavior,” Psychological Science 25, no. 2 (2014).
40. Dimitri A. Christakis et al., “Modifying Media Content for Preschool Children: A Randomized Controlled Trial,” Pediatrics 131, no. 3 (2013).
41. Deborah L. Linebarger, “Lessons from Cookie Monster: Educational Television, Preschoolers, and Executive Function” (Iowa City: University of Iowa, 2014).
42. Patti M. Valkenburg and Tom H. van der Voort, “Televisions Impact on Fantasy Play: A Review of Research,” Developmental Review 14, no. 1 (1994).
43. Michael D. Mumford and Sigrid B. Gustafson, “Creativity Syndrome: Integration, Application, and Innovation,” Psychological Bulletin 103, no. 1 (1988).
44. Patti M. Valkenburg and Sandra L. Calvert, “Media and the Child’s Developing Imagination,” in Handbook of Children and the Media, ed. Dorothy G. Singer and Jerome L. Singer (New York: Sage, 2012).
45. Sandra L. Calvert, Bonnie L. Strong, Eliza L. Jacobs, and Emily E. Conger, “Interaction and Participation for Young Hispanic and C
aucasian Girls’ and Boys’ Learning of Media Content,” Media Psychology 9, no. 2 (2007); for a review of other studies, see Valkenburg and Calvert, “Media and the Child’s Developing Imagination.”
46. Anderson et al., “Early Childhood Television Viewing.”
47. Rideout, “Learning at Home.”
48. Linda A. Jackson et al., “Information Technology Use and Creativity: Findings from the Children and Technology Project,” Computers in Human Behavior 28, no. 2 (2012).
49. Jessica T. Piotrowski and Laurian Meester, “The Opportunities of Creative Apps in Middle Childhood” (paper presented at the 65th Conference of the International Communication Association, San Juan, Puerto Rico, 2015).
50. Fisch, Children’s Learning from Educational Television.
51. Ibid.
52. Alisha M. Crawley, Daniel R. Anderson, Alice Wilder, Marsha Williams, and Angelo Santomero, “Effects of Repeated Exposures to a Single Episode of the Television Program Blue’s Clues on the Viewing Behaviors and Comprehension of Preschool Children,” Journal of Educational Psychology 91, no. 4 (1999).
53. Daniel R Anderson et al., “Researching Blue’s Clues: Viewing Behavior and Impact,” Media Psychology 2, no. 2 (2000).
54. Jessica T. Piotrowski, “Participatory Cues and Program Familiarity Predict Young Children’s Learning from Educational Television,” Media Psychology 17, no. 3 (2014); Valkenburg and Calvert, “Media and the Child’s Developing Imagination.”
55. Calvert et al., “Interaction and Participation.”
56. Jean M. Mandler and Nancy S. Johnson, “Remembrance of Things Parsed: Story Structure and Recall,” Cognitive Psychology 9, no. 1 (1977).
57. Piotrowski, “Narrative Processing Demands and Young Children’s Comprehension.”
58. For a review of research on the role of familiarity, see Piotrowski, “Participatory Cues and Program Familiarity.”
59. Koshi Dhingra, Alice Wilder, Alison Sherman, and Karen Leavitt, “Science on Children’s Television: Collaboration, Synergy, and Research,” in Change Agents in Science Education, ed. Sumi Hagiwara and Koshi Dingra (Rotterdam: Sense, 2006), 137.
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