12. Digital Games
Epigraph: Simon Egenfeldt-Nielsen, Jonas H. Smith, and Susana P. Tosca, Understanding Video Games: The Essential Introduction (New York: Routledge, 2013), 4.
1. Andrew O’Brien, Little Book of Video Games (Chelmsford, UK: G2 Entertainment, 2013).
2. Quoted in Lara Ankersmit and Jacomine Van Veen, “Special Moves: Gebruik En Betekenis Van Videospellen” [Special moves: Use and meaning of video games] (master’s thesis, University of Amsterdam, 1995).
3. A freemium is an app or game that is available for no cost, and instead relies on in-app purchases to generate income.
4. http://www.allgame.com/genres.php
5. Egenfeldt-Nielsen, Smith, and Tosca, Understanding Video Games.
6. Ibid.
7. Ibid.
8. G. Christopher Klug and Jesse Schell, “Adolescents and the Appeal of Video Games,” in Playing Video Games: Motives, Responses and Consequences, ed. Peter Vorderer and Jennings Bryant (Mahwah, N.J.: Erlbaum, 2006).
9. James Paul Gee, “Learning by Design: Good Video Games as Learning Machines,” in Digital Media: Transformations in Human Communication, ed. Paul Messaris and Lee Humphreys (New York: Lang, 2006).
10. Arthur A. Raney, Jason K. Smith, and Kaysee Baker, “Adolescents and the Appeal of Video Games,” in Playing Video Games: Motives, Responses and Consequences, ed. Peter Vorderer and Jennings Bryant (Mahwah, N.J.: Erlbaum, 2006).
11. Ibid.
12. Quoted in ibid., 150.
13. Dolf Zillmann, “Attribution and Misattribution of Excitatory Reactions,” in New Directions in Attribution Research, ed. John H. Harvey, William Ickes, and Robert F. Kidd (Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum, 1978).
14. Raney, Smith, and Baker, “Adolescents and the Appeal of Video Games.”
15. Jeroen S. Lemmens, Patti M. Valkenburg, and Douglas A. Gentile, “The Internet Gaming Disorder Scale,” Psychological Assessment 27, no. 2 (2015); see also Amanda Lenhart, Teens, Social Media, and Technology Overview 2015 (Washington, D.C.: Pew Research Center, 2015).
16. Tracy L. Dietz, “An Examination of Violence and Gender Role Portrayals in Video Games: Implications for Gender Socialization and Aggressive Behavior,” Sex Roles 38, nos. 5–6 (1998).
17. Kaveri Subrahmanyam and Patricia M. Greenfield, “Computer Games for Girls: What Makes Them Play?,” in From Barbie to Mortal Kombat: Gender and Computer Games, ed. Justine Cassell and Henry Jenkins (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2000).
18. Ibid.
19. Results are based on our ongoing longitudinal research among 945 ten- to fifteen-year-olds.
20. Dorothy G. Singer and Jerome L. Singer, The House of Make-Believe: Children’s Play and the Developing Imagination (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1995).
21. Inés M. Fernandez-Guerrero, “Whatsappitis,” Lancet 383, no. 9922 (2014).
22. Solbjørg Makalani Myrtveit et al., “Adolescent Neck and Shoulder Pain: The Association with Depression, Physical Activity, Screen-Based Activities, and Use of Health Care Services,” Journal of Adolescent Health 55, no. 3 (2014).
23. Paula T. Hakala, Arja H. Rimpelä, Lea A. Saarni, and Jouko J. Salminen, “Frequent Computer-Related Activities Increase the Risk of Neck-Shoulder and Low Back Pain in Adolescents,” European Journal of Public Health 16, no. 5 (2006).
24. Piet van Loon, pediatrician, cited in De Volkskrant, Dutch national newspaper, 7 August 2013.
25. Deirdre M. Harrington, Kieran P. Dowd, Alan K. Bourke, and Alan E. Donnelly, “Cross-Sectional Analysis of Levels and Patterns of Objectively Measured Sedentary Time in Adolescent Females,” International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity 8, no. 1 (2011).
26. Hakala et al., “Frequent Computer-Related Activities.”
27. Wei Peng, Jih-Hsuan Lin, and Julia Crouse, “Is Playing Exergames Really Exercising? A Meta-Analysis of Energy Expenditure in Active Video Games,” Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking 14, no. 11 (2011).
28. Amanda E. Staiano, Anisha A. Abraham, and Sandra L. Calvert, “Adolescent Exergame Play for Weight Loss and Psychosocial Improvement: A Controlled Physical Activity Intervention,” Obesity 21, no. 3 (2013).
29. The term “serious” refers not only to cognitive effects but also to social-emotional and health effects; see Clark C. Abt, Serious Games (New York: Viking, 1987).
30. Thomas M. Connolly, Elizabeth A. Boyle, Ewan MacArthur, Thomas Hainey, and James M. Boyle, “A Systematic Literature Review of Empirical Evidence on Computer Games and Serious Games,” Computers and Education 59, no. 2 (2012).
31. Michael F. Young et al., “Our Princess Is in Another Castle: A Review of Trends in Serious Gaming for Education,” Review of Educational Research 82, no. 1 (2012).
32. Pieter Wouters, Christof van Nimwegen, Herre van Oostendorp, and Erik D. van der Spek, “A Meta-Analysis of the Cognitive and Motivational Effects of Serious Games,” Journal of Educational Psychology 105, no. 2 (2013).
33. Egenfeldt-Nielsen, Smith, and Tosca, Understanding Video Games.
34. Patricia M. Greenfield, Mind and Media: The Effects of Television, Video Games, and Computers (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1984).
35. Kasey L. Powers, Patricia J. Brooks, Naomi J. Aldrich, Melissa A. Paladino, and Louis Alfieri, “Effects of Video-Game Play on Information Processing: A Meta-Analytic Investigation,” Psychonomic Bulletin & Review 20, no. 6 (2013).
36. Robert Plomin, Nicholas G. Shakeshaft, Andrew McMillan, and Maciej Trzaskowski, “Nature, Nurture, and Expertise,” Intelligence 45 (2014).
37. James R. Flynn, “Searching for Justice: The Discovery of IQ Gains over Time,” American Psychologist 54, no. 1 (1999).
38. Patricia M. Greenfield, “The Cultural Evolution of IQ,” in The Rising Curve: Long-Term Gains in IQ and Related Measures, ed. Ulric Neisser (Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association, 1998).
39. Powers et al., “Effects of Video-Game Play on Information Processing.”
40. Ibid.
41. Susanne M. Jaeggi, Martin Buschkuehl, John Jonides, and Priti Shah, “Short- and Long-Term Benefits of Cognitive Training,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 108, no. 25 (2011).
42. Powers et al., “Effects of Video-Game Play on Information Processing.”
43. Andrew J. Latham, Lucy L. M. Patston, and Lynette J. Tippett, “The Virtual Brain: 30 Years of Video-Game Play and Cognitive Abilities,” Frontiers in Psychology 4, no. 629 (2013).
44. Simone Kühn, Tobias Gleich, Robert C. Lorenz, U. Lindenberger, and Jürgen Gallinat, “Playing Super Mario Induces Structural Brain Plasticity: Gray Matter Changes Resulting from Training with a Commercial Video Game,” Molecular Psychiatry 19, no. 2 (2014).
45. Edna Mitchell, “The Dynamics of Family Interaction around Home Video Games,” Marriage and Family Review 8, nos. 1–2 (1985).
46. Kevin Durkin and Bonnie Barber, “Not So Doomed: Computer Game Play and Positive Adolescent Development,” Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology 23, no. 4 (2002).
47. Christothea Herodotou, Maria Kambouri, and Niall Winters, “Dispelling the Myth of the Socio-Emotionally Dissatisfied Gamer,” Computers in Human Behavior 32 (2014).
48. Eric A. Egli and Lawrence S. Meyers, “The Role of Video Game Playing in Adolescent Life: Is There Reason to Be Concerned?,” Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society 22, no. 4 (1984).
49. Lemmens, Valkenburg, and Gentile, “The Internet Gaming Disorder Scale.”
50. For an overview, see ibid.
51. See Jeroen S. Lemmens, Patti M. Valkenburg, and Jochen Peter, “Development and Validation of a Game Addiction Scale for Adolescents,” Media Psychology 12, no. 1 (2009); Lemmens, Valkenburg, and Gentile, “The Internet Gaming Disorder Scale.”
52. Jeroen S. Lemmens, Patti M. Valkenburg, and Jochen Peter, “Psychosocial Causes and Consequences of Pathological Gaming,” Computers in Human Behavior 27, no. 1 (2011).
53. Douglas A. Gentile et al., “Pathological Video Game Us
e among Youths: A Two-Year Longitudinal Study,” Pediatrics 127, no. 2 (2011).
13. Social Media
Epigraph: Interview of Hans Den Hartog Jager by Rineke Dijkstra in the Dutch newspaper NRC, 17 December 2010.
1. Amanda Lenhart, Teens, Social Media, and Technology Overview 2015 (Washington, D.C.: Pew Research Center, 2015).
2. Sonia Livingstone, Leslie Haddon, Jane Vincent, Giovanna Mascheroni, and Kjartan Ólafsson, Net Children Go Mobile: The UK Report (London: London School of Economics and Political Science, 2014).
3. See “Smartphone User Penetration as Percentage of Total Global Population from 2014 to 2019,” www.statista.com/statistics/203734/global-smartphone-penetration-per-capita-since-2005 (subscription required).
4. See also Vicky Rideout, The Common Sense Census: Media Use by Tweens and Teens (San Francisco: Common Sense, 2015); “Planet of the Phones,” Economist, 28 February 2015, www.economist.com/news/leaders/21645180-smartphone-ubiquitous-addictive-and-transformative-planet-phones.
5. danah boyd, It’s Complicated: The Social Lives of Networked Teens (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2014), 8.
6. James J. Gibson, The Ecological Approach to Visual Perception (Boston: Houghton-Mifflin, 1979).
7. These affordances are in part based on danah boyd, “Social Network Sites as Networked Publics: Affordances, Dynamics and Implications,” in A Networked Self: Identity, Community, and Culture on Social Network Sites, ed. Zizi Papacharissi (New York: Routledge, 2010); and Jochen Peter and Patti M. Valkenburg, “The Effects of Internet Communication on Adolescents’ Psychological Development,” in The International Encyclopedia of Media Studies: Media Psychology / Media Effects, ed. Erica Scharrer (San Francisco: Wiley-Blackwell, 2013).
8. Duane Buhrmester and Karen Prager, “Patterns and Functions of Self-Disclosure during Childhood and Adolescence,” in Disclosure Processes in Children and Adolecents, ed. Ken J. Rotenberg (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995).
9. Ibid.
10. Alexander P. Schouten, Patti M. Valkenburg, and Jochen Peter, “Precursors and Underlying Processes of Adolescents’ Online Self-Disclosure: Developing and Testing an ‘Internet-Attribute-Perception’ Model,” Media Psychology 10, no. 2 (2007).
11. Amanda Lenhart, Aaron Smith, Monica Anderson, Maeve Duggan, and Andrew Perrin, Teens, Technology, and Friendships (Washington, D.C.: Pew Research Center, 2015).
12. Patti M. Valkenburg and Jochen Peter, “Online Communication among Adolescents: An Integrated Model of Its Attraction, Opportunities, and Risks,” Journal of Adolescent Health 48, no. 2 (2011).
13. Sabine Trepte and Leonard Reinecke, “The Social Web as a Shelter for Privacy and Authentic Living,” in Privacy Online: Perspectives on Privacy and Self-Disclosure in the Social Web, ed. Sabine Trepte and Leonard Reinecke (Heidelberg: Springer, 2011).
14. Mary Madden et al., Teens, Social Media, and Privacy (Washington, D.C.: Pew Research Center, 2013).
15. Judee K. Burgoon, “Privacy and Communication,” in Communication Yearbook 6, ed. Michael Burgoon (New York: Routledge, 1982).
16. Valkenburg and Peter, “Online Communication among Adolescents.”
17. Rideout, The Common Sense Census. Similar estimates are found in other countries; see, for example, Ofcom, Children and Parents: Media Use and Attitudes Report (London: Ofcom, 2014).
18. For a discussion, see Joseph B. Walther, “Theories of Computer-Mediated Communication and Interpersonal Relations,” in The Handbook of Interpersonal Communication, ed. Mark L. Knapp and John A. Daly (Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage, 2011).
19. Ibid.
20. “Computer-Mediated Communication: Impersonal, Interpersonal, and Hyperpersonal Interaction,” Communication Research 23, no. 1 (1996).
21. Patti M. Valkenburg, Jochen Peter, and Joseph B. Walther, “Media Effects: Theory and Research,” Annual Review of Psychology 67 (2016).
22. Ibid.
23. Alvin Toffler, The Third Wave: The Classic Study of Tomorrow (New York: Bantam, 1980).
24. Raymond J. Pingree, “How Messages Affect Their Senders: A More General Model of Message Effects and Implications for Deliberation,” Communication Theory 17, no. 4 (2007).
25. Daryl J. Bem, “Self-Perception Theory,” in Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, ed. Leonard Berkowitz (New York: Academic Press, 1972).
26. Jennifer D. Campbell, “Self-Esteem and Clarity of the Self-Concept,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 59, no. 3 (1990).
27. Moshe Israelashvili, Taejin Kim, and Gabriel Bukobza, “Adolescents’ Over-Use of the Cyber World: Internet Addiction or Identity Exploration?,” Journal of Adolescence 35, no. 2 (2012).
28. Valkenburg and Peter, “Online Communication among Adolescents.”
29. Katie Davis, “Young People’s Digital Lives: The Impact of Interpersonal Relationships and Digital Media Use on Adolescents’ Sense of Identity,” Computers in Human Behavior 29, no. 6 (2013); see also Valkenburg and Peter, “Online Communication among Adolescents.”
30. Susan Harter, The Construction of the Self: Developmental and Sociocultural Foundations, 2nd ed. (New York: Guilford, 2012).
31. Kelly L. Schmitt, Shoshana Dayanim, and Stacey Matthias, “Personal Homepage Construction as an Expression of Social Development,” Developmental Psychology 44, no. 2 (2008).
32. Patti M. Valkenburg, Jochen Peter, and Alexander P. Schouten, “Friend Networking Sites and Their Relationship to Adolescents’ Well-Being and Social Self-Esteem,” Cyberpsychology and Behavior 9, no. 5 (2006).
33. Ibid.
34. Valkenburg and Peter, “Online Communication among Adolescents.”
35. Keith Wilcox and Andrew T. Stephen, “Are Close Friends the Enemy? Online Social Networks, Self-Esteem, and Self-Control,” Journal of Consumer Research 40, no. 1 (2013).
36. Allan Fenigstein, Michael F. Scheier, and Arnold H. Buss, “Public and Private Self-Consciousness: Assessment and Theory,” Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 43, no. 4 (1975).
37. Jong-Eun Roselyn Lee, David Clark Moore, Eun-A Park, and Sung Gwan Park, “Who Wants to Be ‘Friend-Rich’? Social Compensatory Friending on Facebook and the Moderating Role of Public Self-Consciousness,” Computers in Human Behavior 28, no. 3 (2012); Minsun Shim, Min J. Lee, and Sang H. Park, “Photograph Use on Social Network Sites among South Korean College Students: The Role of Public and Private Self-Consciousness,” CyberPsychology and Behavior 11, no. 4 (2008).
38. Nikhil Dhawan, Mark E. Kunik, John Oldham, John Coverdale, “Prevalence and Treatment of Narcissistic Personality Disorder in the Community: A Systematic Review,” Comprehensive Psychiatry 51, no. 4 (2010).
39. Jean M. Twenge and W. Keith Campbell, The Narcissism Epidemic: Living in the Age of Entitlement (New York: Free Press, 2009).
40. Larry D. Rosen, iDisorder: Understanding Our Obsession with Technology and Overcoming Its Hold on Us (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012); Elliot T. Panek, Yioryos Nardis, and Sara Konrath, “Mirror or Megaphone? How Relationships between Narcissism and Social Networking Site Use Differ on Facebook and Twitter,” Computers in Human Behavior 29, no. 5 (2013).
41. See also: Robert Raskin and Howard Terry, “A Principal-Components Analysis of the Narcissistic Personality Inventory and Further Evidence of Its Construct Validity,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 54, no. 5 (1988).
42. Otto F. Kernberg, Severe Personality Disorders: Psychotherapeutic Strategies (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1993).
43. Robert Kraut et al., “Internet Paradox: A Social Technology That Reduces Social Involvement and Psychological Well-Being?,” American Psychologist 53, no. 9 (1998).
44. For a review, see Patti M. Valkenburg and Jochen Peter, “Social Consequences of the Internet for Adolescents: A Decade of Research,” Current Directions in Psychological Science 18, no. 1 (2009).
45. For reviews, see Lauren A. Spies Shapiro and Gayla Margolin, “Growing Up Wired: Social Networking Sites and Adolescent
Psychosocial Development,” Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review 17, no. 1 (2014); and Valkenburg and Peter, “Online Communication among Adolescents.”
46. “The Effects of Instant Messaging on the Quality of Adolescents’ Existing Friendships: A Longitudinal Study,” Journal of Communication 59, no. 1 (2009); Stephanie M. Reich, Kaveri Subrahmanyam, and Guadalupe Espinoza, “Friending, IMing, and Hanging out Face-to-Face: Overlap in Adolescents’ Online and Offline Social Networks,” Developmental Psychology 48, no. 2 (2012).
47. Reported in: Sonia Livingstone and Peter K. Smith, “Harms Experienced by Child Users of Online and Mobile Technologies: The Nature, Prevalence and Management of Sexual and Aggressive Risks in the Digital Age,” Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 55, no. 6 (2014).
48. Ibid.
49. Robert Slonje and Peter K. Smith, “Cyberbullying: Another Main Type of Bullying?,” Scandinavian Journal of Psychology 49, no. 2 (2008).
50. Valkenburg and Peter, “Online Communication among Adolescents.”
51. Susanne E. Baumgartner, Sindy R. Sumter, Jochen Peter, Patti M. Valkenburg, and Sonia Livingstone, “Does Country Context Matter? Investigating the Predictors of Teen Sexting across Europe,” Computers in Human Behavior 34 (2014); Michele L. Ybarra and Kimberly J. Mitchell, “‘Sexting’ and Its Relation to Sexual Activity and Sexual Risk Behavior in a National Survey of Adolescents,” Journal of Adolescent Health 55, no. 6 (2014).
52. Kimberly J. Mitchell, David Finkelhor, Lisa M. Jones, and Janis Wolak, “Prevalence and Characteristics of Youth Sexting: A National Study,” Pediatrics 129, no. 1 (2012); Baumgartner et al., “Does Country Context Matter? Investigating the Predictors of Teen Sexting across Europe”; Julia R. Lippman and Scott W. Campbell, “Damned If You Do, Damned If You Don’t . . . If You’re a Girl: Relational and Normative Contexts of Adolescent Sexting in the United States,” Journal of Children and Media 8, no. 4 (2014).
53. Bianca Klettke, David J. Hallford, and David J. Mellor, “Sexting Prevalence and Correlates: A Systematic Literature Review,” Clinical Psychology Review 34, no. 1 (2014).
54. Jeff R. Temple and HyeJeong Choi, “Longitudinal Association between Teen Sexting and Sexual Behavior,” Pediatrics 134, no. 5 (2014).
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