frankincense tree (Boswellia sacra), 21, 22, 26–27, 28fig., 29–30; grove management, 25–27, 29; habitat, 16–18, 20–21, 25
fried pastries, 207; Zalābiya / Shaqima / Buñuelos (Deep-Fried Cardamom-Spiced Fritters Soaked in Saffron Syrup), 207–8
Fujian, 205, 211–13. See also Quanzhou; Zayton
Gama, Paulo da, 232, 237
Gama, Vasco da, 231–39, 271; in Africa, 233–36; in India, 233–39, 237fig.; tomb of, 239–40
Gambrelle, Fabienne, 63
Gandapor, 88–89
Gansu Corridor, 150, 151, 153, 216. See also Gobi Desert
Gaozong (Tang Emperor), 139, 204
garam masala, 126, 191, 203, 235
garbanzo beans: Harira / Carne de Cordero en la Olla (Lamb and Garbanzo Bean Stew), 6, 7–8; Nabātiyyāt (Nabataean Chicken, Pasta, and Garbanzo Bean Stew), 81–83
garlic, 175, 191, 265, 268
Gaza, 60, 61, 71, 72, 79, 132
Gazpacho al-Andalus (Tharīd), 112–13
Gedi, 241
Gibraltar, 130, 163, 182, 185, 262
ginger, 156–57, 175, 191, 193, 194, 202; Marak Minj (Green Lentil Curry with Frankincense, Ginger, and Omani Spices), 19–20; in spice mixtures, 157, 203; trade routes, 142–43map
Gitlitz, David, 172
Glencore International, 77
globalization, 13, 105–6, 122–23, 275–76; spice trade and, 4, 21, 89, 271, 274–76
goat, 42, 57; Prehistoric Mansaf (Kid and Lamb Stew with Yogurt, Root Crops, and Herbs), 272–73
Gobi Desert, 147, 148, 153, 155, 158
grains and grain trade, 41–42, 56–57, 77–80, 81
grains of paradise. See melegueta pepper
Granada, 161–62, 165, 185; Catholic reconquest, 186, 187, 187fig., 245
grasshoppers, 43
Greece, ancient, spices in, 84, 94
Grenville, Charles, 261
Gresik, 220, 222, 224
Gudaphar, 88–89
guilds, 181–82; Karimi, 181, 183–85; Radhanites, 103, 181–83
Guinea grains. See melegueta pepper
Gujaratis, 93, 98; Kanji Malam and da Gama, 235–36
Gulf of Hormuz, 221
Guyana, 259
al-Hadr tribes, 55, 56fig., 93
al-Hakam I, 174
Halliburton, 106, 210
halvah, 100–101
al-Hamal bin Májid, 146–47
harira, 7, 56–57, 69, 70fig., 81; Harira (Lamb and Garbanzo Bean Stew), 6, 7–8
Hārūn al-Rashīd, 175
Hasan ibn al Nu’man al-Ghassani, 128, 129
Hay, John, 275
Hernández, Francisco, 260
Herodotus, 17, 66–67, 72
Herrera, Gabriel Alonso de, 170–71
Heschel, Abraham Joshua, 49
Hieronymus of Cardia, 68
Hill, Tony, 43, 44
Hinde, Chris, 77
Hispaniola, 2, 246
hojari fusoos frankincense, 22, 32–33
Hong Bao, 222, 229
Hongwu Emperor, 227–28
Hordes, Stanley, 11
Hourani, Albert, 57
Hourani, Cecil, 272
Hourani, George Fadlo, 47–48
House of Mendes, 193–94, 195–97
Hulumosi, 221
Hu Szu-hui, 6
Iberia, 161–80; Abd al-Rahman’s arrival, 163, 166; House of Mendes, 193–94, 195–97; Muslim and Jewish expulsion and emigration, 186–88, 192–93, 196, 232, 244–45, 247, 254–55; Radhanite and Karimi merchants in, 181–85. See also al-Andalus; Catholic inquisitions; Portugal; Spain
Ibn Battuta, 40, 98, 200, 206, 276
Ibn Said al-Maghribi, 167
Ibn Sayyār al-Warrāq, 43, 80
Ibn Shabba, 120
Ibn Sīnā (Avicenna), 117, 135
Iddao Ishaak, 124
Igbos, 124
Illicium verum, 203. See also star anise
incenses and incense trade, 24, 31, 80, 84. See also aromatics; frankincense; other specific types
India: ancient Arab trade with, 64, 66, 91, 96; Central Asian trade with, 146, 147; chiles in, 247; cloves in, 103; da Gama in, 233–39, 237fig.; ginger in, 156; Mendes family trade with, 193; native spices, 54, 72, 81, 87, 99; Portuguese and, 232, 240–41; saffron in, 63; trade routes and hubs, 142–43map; Zheng He and his fleet in, 221, 222, 230. See also specific places
Indian cooking, 203, 235, 257
Indian Ocean. See Arabian Sea; maritime trade; specific ports and islands
indigo, 50
Indonesia, 52, 109, 222, 224–27, 230. See also specific cities and islands
Iran: saffron in, 63. See also Persia
Iraq. See Baghdad; Mesopotamia
irrigation, 52, 54–56, 56fig.; diffusion of irrigated agriculture, 93, 155, 158; Nabataean water management, 75–76, 78–79. See also agriculture
Isaac of Mosul, 174
Isabella I, 186–87, 188, 196, 197, 243
Ishafran, 209–10, 218
Islam, 274; Abbasids and, 159; in Africa, 123–31; Arabic language and, 122–23; in Central Asia, 138–40, 149; in China, 138, 149, 204, 212, 230; during Muhammad’s lifetime, 116–19; early expansion of, 122–30, 138–40; economic power and precepts, 116–18, 122, 140, 141–42, 231–32; in Europe, 192; Nabataean adoption of, 83; Portuguese colonialism and, 231–32; in Southeast Asia, 214, 222, 224; tax levied on non-Muslims, 95, 97, 121–22; trade and, 116–18, 119–20, 121–22. See also al-Andalus; Muhammad; Muslim entries; Qur’an; religious tolerance
Ispah Rebellion, 209–11, 212
Jabal al-Tariq (Gibraltar), 130, 163, 182, 185, 262
Jabal Samhan, 16, 18, 24–25, 29. See also Dhofar highlands; frankincense
Jamaica, 255, 256, 258–59, 261
Jamaican cooking, 257
Jamaica pepper. See allspice
Japanese cooking, ginger in, 157
Jaramillo, Cleofas, 6, 7, 10, 11–12
Jauhar al-Faqih, 238
Java, 220–21, 222, 224, 230
Jerusalem, 14, 15, 58map; author’s visit, 84–85; Nabataean traders and, 61, 69, 72
Jews and Jewish traders: in Africa, 38, 124–30, 131–32; in al-Andalus, 163, 166, 169–70, 175, 177; in China, 202, 204, 206, 210; Iberian expulsion and emigration, 186–88, 192–93, 196, 232, 244–45, 247, 254–55; Mendes trading clan, 193–94, 195–97; moneylenders, 118, 184; in New World, 10–13, 165, 207, 244–45, 248, 251, 254–55; and New World spice trade, 245, 248–49, 254–55, 258–59, 269; poets, 118, 172; in pre-Islamic Oman, 91; Radhanites, 103, 181–83. See also Judaism; religious tolerance; specific people
João, king of Portugal, 193
John III of Portugal, 239
Judaism, 80, 91, 92, 274
Jumbaboy, 133, 135
Ka‘b ibn al-Ashraf, 109, 111, 118–21
al-Kāhinat, 126–27, 127–28
Kanji Malam, 235–36
Karimi merchant guild, 181, 183–85
Katzer, Gernot, 54
Kelley, Laura, 272
Kennedy, Diana, 266
Kenya. See Lamu Archipelago; Malindi; Mombasa
Khadijah, 4, 114–15, 122, 130
Khaled ibn Yazid, 128, 129
Al-Khanjari, Sulaiman, 45–46, 90–91
Kid and Lamb Stew with Yogurt, Root Crops, and Herbs (Prehistoric Mansaf), 272–73
King, Anya, 151
Kitāb al-Filāḥa (Libro de agricultura), 170–71
Krondl, Michael, 193–94
Kusaila, 128
lamb, 11; Harira / Carne de Cordero en la Olla (Lamb and Garbanzo Bean Stew), 6, 7–8; Prehistoric Mansaf (Kid and Lamb Stew with Yogurt, Root Crops, and Herbs), 272–73
Lamu Archipelago, 58map, 89, 242; Akhbar Pate (Pate Island), 230, 241–42; Arab traders in, 91, 102, 130, 241; Zheng He’s fleet in, 221, 230
Landa Calderón, Diego de, 251
Land of Bridges, 198–99
language ability, trade and, 50, 83, 94
Latin American cooking: Arab-Persian culinary techniques in
, 145; barbacoa, 264–65; chiles in, 246; Old World spices in, 67, 87, 165, 179, 264, 265, 268, 269. See also moles
L’Écluse, Charles, 246
Lentil Curry with Frankincense, Ginger, and Omani Spices (Marak Minj), 19–20
Levathes, Louise, 231
Libro de agricultura (Kitāb al-Filāḥa), 170–71
Libya, 127, 128, 132
Like Water for Chocolate (Esquivel), 165
Lingshan Tombs, 204
Lisbon, 194–95; author’s visit, 239–40; da Gama’s tomb, 239–40; House of Mendes, 193–94, 195–97
Locusts and Spices, Dates Kneaded with, 43–44
long pepper, 81, 202
Lopez, Aaron, 264
loukoumia (Turkish delight), 9–10, 117
Luna, Beatrice de (Gracia Nasi), 193–94, 195–97, 276
Luoyang Bridge, 201
Ma (Ming Empress), 227–28
mace, 95, 103, 175, 194
Madagascar, 91, 94, 104, 130, 184, 221, 261
Madhíyah, 146–47
Madinat al-Zahra, 177–80
Magan, 41, 91, 92–93
Maghreb. See North Africa; specific countries and cities
Magi, 88–89
Ma He. See Zheng He
Ma Huan, 219, 221, 222, 227–28
maize, 196
Malabar Coast, 5, 142–43map; Arab and Muslim traders and, 52, 94, 98, 214, 230, 236–38; native spices, 38, 99; New World products and, 247, 262
Malacca, 221, 222, 236, 241
Malacca, Strait of, 102, 142–43map, 222, 226
Malaysia, 94, 98, 222, 227
Malindi, 221, 222, 233, 241; da Gama in, 233–36
Mann, Charles C., 2, 271
Mansaf, Prehistoric (Kid and Lamb Stew with Yogurt, Root Crops, and Herbs), 272–73
Manuel I of Portugal, 232, 238, 239
Maqlay Samak (Fried Fish on a Bed of Coconut Rice), 96–97
Maqqari, Ahmed ibn Mohammed, 167
Marakanda, 135. See also Samarkand
Marak Minj (Green Lentil Curry with Frankincense, Ginger, and Omani Spices), 19–20
Ma’rib oasis and dam, 33map, 53–57, 93
Marignolli, Giovanni de, 206
maritime navigation, 34, 47, 93, 94, 102; da Gama’s Gujarati navigator, 235–36; Zheng He’s charts, 220
maritime trade: advantages of, 95, 109; with China, 95, 199, 200, 209, 214–15, 224–25; Chinese traders, 100–101, 219–22, 224–27, 230; control of Gibraltar, 185; earliest Arab traders, 40, 41–42, 47–50, 48fig., 52, 64, 102; early written records, 41–42, 49, 91, 97–98; Indian Ocean crossings, 102; Karimi and, 184; Nabataean, 68–69, 70; piracy, 68–69, 92, 214–15, 222, 270; Portuguese, 126, 231–39; South Asian traders, 220
markets and marketplaces, 15; Córdoba, 180; Damascus, 111, 113–14; Ethiopia, 37, 39–40; Jerusalem, 15, 84–85; Lisbon, 240; Ma Huan’s assessments of, 221; Mérida, 251–52; Muhammad’s Yathrib market, 119–20; Muslim expansion and, 123–24; Oman, 30, 31, 32–33, 45–47, 52–53; Tajikistan, 133–34, 135, 137, 138fig.; Ukaz (Mecca), 108
marranos, 188. See also converses Marsh Arabs, 139, 140
Marwan (Palestinian seed trader), 85–88
Marwan II, 159
mastic, 6, 7, 9–10, 58map, 109
Mayans, 251; foods and cooking, 252, 253, 256. See also Latin American cooking; moles
Mecca, 33map, 58map; Muhammad’s expulsion from, 118; as trade hub, 94, 106–9; Zheng He’s hajj, 222, 228–29. See also Quraysh tribes and traders
medicinal uses: camels’ milk, 34; coriander, 190; frankincense, 23, 27, 34; musk, 150
Medieval Cuisine of the Islamic World (Zaouali), 81. See also Zaouali, Lilia
Medina (Yathrib), 33map, 51, 58map, 79, 91, 107, 109; Muhammad in, 118, 119–20
melegueta pepper, 125, 126–27, 191, 247; trade routes, 58map, 184
Mencius, 219
Mendes, Diogo, 194
Mendes, Francisco, 193–94
Mendes clan, 193–94, 195–97
Menocal, María Rosa, 166–67
Menzies, Gavin, 215
merchant cultures: emergence of, 49–50. See also specific peoples
Mérida (Mexico), 249, 250map, 251–54, 255
Mesopotamia: ancient texts and trade, 41–42, 272–73; Islam in, 138, 139; Marsh Arabs, 139, 140. See also specific cities
Mexican cooking. See Latin American cooking
Mexico, 250map; cacao in, 263; chiles in, 246; Inquisition in, 249, 251, 255, 258; Jews and Muslims in, 244, 245, 249, 251, 261, 269; pre-Columbian trade in, 30, 249, 258, 260; trade routes and hubs, 250map, 255; vanilla in, 260, 261. See also New World entries; specific places and peoples
Michalopoulos, Stelios, 122
Middle Eastern cooking, 87, 94, 165, 172, 235, 257, 272; Arab-Persian culinary techniques in, 145
Miksicek, Charles, 263
Minaeans, 26–27, 50–52, 55–59, 60–61, 64, 70, 274
Miranda, Cristóbal de, 249
Mīrī (ship), 238–39
moles, 223, 265, 266, 268–69; Pollo en Mole Verde de Pepita (Spiced Chicken in Green Pumpkin Seed Sauce), 266–67
Moluccas, 41, 94, 103, 134, 142–43map, 221, 244
Mombasa, 222, 233, 241
money lending, 118, 119, 141, 144, 184; by House of Mendes, 194, 195
Mongolia, 5–6, 7, 150, 151, 153, 154fig., 272. See also Gansu Corridor; Gobi Desert
Mongols, 147, 227
moriscos, 188, 192. See also Rodrigo de Triana
Moroccan cooking, 7, 117, 246–47
Morocco, 162–63, 186; Moroccan Jews, 131–32. See also specific cities Moschus spp. (musk deer), 150–51
Moya de Contreras, Pedro, 258
Mu‘awiya ibn Abī Sufyān, 158
Muhammad, 109, 111, 114–18, 130, 152; and Ka‘b, 119–21; and Khadijah, 114–15; as trader, 4, 111, 114, 115, 116
Muhammad bin Abd al-Rahman b. Ishmail al-Jaziri, 184–85
Muhammad bin Hasan al-Baghdadi, 207
multilingualism, trade and, 50, 83, 94
Muscat, 33map, 45–47, 58map, 92, 98, 142–43map, 241
musk, 24, 142–43map, 147, 149, 150–52, 158, 182, 222
musk deer, 150–51
Muslims and Muslim traders: in China, 6, 138–39, 149, 202, 204–6, 209–13, 216–17, 227–30; Christian-Muslim trade ban, 182, 184; Iberian expulsion and emigration, 186–88, 192–93, 196, 232, 244–45, 247, 254–55; in India, 236, 238–39; Karimi guild, 160, 181, 183–85; in New World, 10–13, 244–45, 248, 251, 254–55; and New World spice trade, 245, 248–49, 255, 258–59, 262, 264–65, 269. See also al-Andalus; Islam; specific individuals
myrrh, 21, 33map, 109, 202; ancient trade in, 33, 50, 56, 61, 72, 89
Nabataeans, 5, 24, 52, 68–73, 274; as agriculturists, 68, 76–80; as raiders, 68–69, 70; religious beliefs, 80, 83; as traders, 27, 68–69, 71–73, 76–80, 83–84; writing of, 69, 75–76, 83
Nabātiyyāt (Nabataean Chicken, Pasta, and Garbanzo Bean Stew), 81–83
Nasi, Gracia, 193–94, 195–97, 276
Native Americans, 165, 176. See also specific peoples
Naturalis Historiae. See Pliny the Elder
Navajo, 165, 176
navigation skills. See maritime navigation
Nebhan, Mr. (Omani merchant), 45–47
Negev, Nabataeans in, 74–79
Negus, King, 130
nejd, 18, 20, 25
New Mexico, 6, 7, 10–13, 207, 249, 264
New Mexico Tasty Recipes (Jaramillo), 6, 7
newspice. See allspice
New World, 243–69, 250map; Columbus’s “discovery,” 243–45; indigenous trade networks, 249, 261, 264; Jews and Muslims in, 244–45, 248–49, 251, 254–55, 258–59, 262, 264–65, 269; Old World spices in, 179, 262, 264, 265, 268, 269; slave trade, 249, 251, 262. See also Columbus, Christopher; specific peoples and places
New World plants and spices: indigenous processing techniques, 258, 259; trade in, 196–97, 245, 248–49, 254–55, 258–59, 269, 274; trade rou
tes and hubs, 250map, 255, 261. See also Columbian Exchange; specific types
nightshades, 171. See also specific plants Nizwa, 52–53
North Africa: Abd al-Rahman I in, 162–63; Jewish and Muslim immigration from Iberia, 186, 192–93; Jews in, 124–27, 131–32, 192–93; trade routes, 58map, 124, 126. See also specific places and peoples
North African cooking, 145, 165, 246–47. See also Moroccan cooking
North America, 250map; anise in, 179; pomegranate in, 165. See also New World entries; specific places and peoples
Nuñez Netto, Josua, 259
nutmeg, 95, 103, 142–43map, 175, 193, 194, 203
Obeida bin Abdulla bin al-Qasim, 98
Obra de agricultura (Herrera), 170–71
odors, spices as masking agents, 24
olives, 169, 199, 200
Oman: author’s souk visits, 30, 31, 32–33, 45–47, 52–53; Bahla Fort, 52, 53fig.; al-Balid ruins, 40–42, 41fig.; Portuguese in, 240–41; water management in, 155, 158. See also frankincense; specific regions and cities
Omani cooking, 17–18, 96; Maqlay Samak (Fried Fish on a Bed of Coconut Rice), 96–97; Marak Minj (Green Lentil Curry with Frankincense, Ginger, and Omani Spices), 19–20
Omanis: in al-Andalus, 163; Omani traders, 91–95, 97–98, 102, 130. See also Banu Nebhani; Minaeans; Nabataeans
Oñate, Juan de, 10
oregano, 175, 255
Orians, Gordon, 2
Oshi Plov (Persian-Tajik Rice Pilaf with Quince), 135–37
Ottoman Turks, 152, 185, 241, 247
paella, 63, 135, 177
Palembang, 220, 222, 224
Palmer, E. H., 78
Palm Jumeirah, 105
pasta, 81; Nabātiyyāt (Nabataean Chicken, Pasta, and Garbanzo Bean Stew), 81–83
Pate Island (Patta), 230, 241–42
People of the Book, 95, 97, 274
pepper, 84, 126, 191, 203, 246; in New World, 262, 265. See also long pepper; melegueta pepper; pepper trade; Sichuan pepper
peppers. See chile peppers
pepper trade, 202, 205, 214–15; Europeans and, 193–94, 232, 236, 238, 248; Karimi traders, 183, 184
The Pepper Trail (Andrews), 247
Pereira, Joseph, 259
Pérez, Francisco, 63
perfumes, 24, 27
The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, 66
Perry, Charles, 81
Persia: Islam in, 138, 139–40; Persian traders, 66, 93, 98, 202, 204, 205, 206; under Umayyad rule, 141, 144–47. See also specific places and peoples
Persian cooking, 81, 145, 158, 207; Arab-Persian culinary fusions, 6, 145, 158, 223; Oshi Plov (Persian-Tajik Rice Pilaf with Quince), 135–37
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