C. Joseph Pusateri, eds., American Business History: Case Studies (Arlington Heights, IL: Harlan-Davidson, 1987), 60. Also see Barbara M. Tucker, Samuel Slater and the Origins of the American Textile Industry, 1790–1860 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1984).
19. Schweikart, Entrepreneurial Adventure, 79.
20. Ibid., 102; Atack and Passell, New Economic View of American History, 150; Carter Goodrich, Government Promotion of American Canals and Railroads, 1800–1890 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1960) and his Canals and American Economic Development (New York: Columbia University Press, 1961), and his The Government and the Economy, 1783–1861 (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1967); Robert Shaw, Erie Water West: A History of the Erie Canal, 1792–1854 (Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 1968); Ronald W. Filante, “A Note on the Economic Viability of the Erie Canal, 1825–60,” Business History Review, 48, Spring 1974, 95–102;
21. B. R. Burg, “DeWitt Clinton,” in Schweikart, ed., Encyclopedia of American Business History and Biography: Banking and Finance to 1913, 123–30.
22. Atack and Passell, New American View of American History, 155–56; Roger Ransom, “Social Returns from Public Transport Investment: A Case Study of the Ohio Canal,” Journal of Political Economy, 78, September/October 1970, 1041–64, and his “Interregional Canals and Economic Specialization in the Antebellum United States,” Explorations in Economic History, 5, Fall 1967, 12–35.
23. James Mak and Gary M. Walton, “Steamboats and the Great Productivity Surge in River Transportation,” Journal of Economic History, 32, 1972, 619–40, and their Western River Transportation: The Era of Early Internal Development, 1810–1860 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1975); Jeremy Atack, et al., “The Profitability of Steamboating on Western Rivers: 1850,” Business History Review, 49, Autumn 1975, 350–54; Erik Haites and James Mak, “Ohio and Mississippi River Transportation, 1810–1860,” Explorations in Economic History, 8, 1970, 153–80.
24. Wheaton J. Lane, Commodore Vanderbilt: An Epic of the Steam Age (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1942), 148; John G. B. Hutchins, The American Maritime Industries and Public Policy, 1789–1914 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1941). See also Royal Meeker, History of the Shipping Subsidies (New York: Macmillan, 1905), 5–11, and Walter T. Dunmore, Ship Subsidies: An Economic Study of the Policy of Subsidizing Merchant Marines (Boston: Houghton-Mifflin, 1907), 92–103.
25. Schweikart, Entrepreneurial Adventure, 107–9.
26. John Steele Gordon, The Scarlet Woman of Wall Street (New York: Weidenfeld & Nicholson, 1988), 101.
27. John Majewski, “Who Financed the Transportation Revolution? Regional Divergence and Internal Improvements in Antebellum Pennsylvania and Virginia,” Journal of Economic History, 56, December 1996, 763–88; John F. Stover, American Railroads (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1961) and his Iron Road to the West (New York: Columbia University Press, 1978).
28. Richard R. John, Spreading the News: The American Postal System from Franklin to Morse (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1995) and his “Private Mail Delivery in the United States During the Nineteenth Century—a Sketch,” in William J. Hauseman, ed., Business and Economic History, 2nd series, 15, 1986, 131–43.
29. George Dangerfield, The Era of Good Feelings (New York: Harcourt, Brace, and Co., 1952), 126.
30. Ray Allen Billington and Martin Ridge, Westward Expansion: A History of the American West, 6th ed. (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2001), 104.
31. Norman A. Graebner, Ideas and Diplomacy: Reading in the Intellectual Tradition of the American Foreign Policy (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000, 214).
32. Metternich quoted in the Washington National Intelligencer, December 8, 1823; L’Etoile quoted in Dexter Perkins, The Monroe Doctrine, 1823–1826 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1927), 30.
33. Perkins, Monroe Doctrine, 30–31.
34. William M. Wiecek, “Old Times There Are Not Forgotten: The Distinctiveness of the Southern Constitutional Experience,” in Kermit L. Hall and James W. Ely, eds., An Uncertain Tradition: Constitutionalism and the History of the South (Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press, 1989), 159–97, quotation on 164.
35. Robert P. Forbes, “Slavery and the Meaning of America, 1819–1833,” Ph.D. Diss., Yale University, 1994.
36. Richard P. McCormick, “New Perspectives on Jacksonian Politics,” American Historical Review, 65, October 1959–July 1960, 288–301, quotation on 289.
37. Richard P. McCormick, “Political Development and the Second Party System,” in William Nisbet Chambers and Walter Dean Burnham, eds., The American Party Systems: Stages of Political Development (London: Oxford University Press, 1967), 90–116, quotation on 107, n. 14. See also his “New Perspectives on Jacksonian Politics,” American Historical Review, 65, 1960, 288–301 and his The Second American Party System: Party Formation in the Jacksonian Era (New York: W. W. Norton, 1966).
38. McCormick, Second American Party System, 351.
39. Robert V. Remini, The Jacksonian Era (Arlington Heights, IL: Harlan Davidson, 1989), 12.
40. Robert V. Remini, Martin Van Buren and the Making of the Democratic Party (New York: Columbia University Press, 1959), 12–23.
41. Richard H. Brown, “The Missouri Crisis: Slavery, and the Politics of Jacksonianism,” in Stanley N. Katz and Stanley I. Kutler, New Perspectives on the American Past, vol. 1, 1607–1877 (Boston: Little, Brown, 1969), 241–56, quotation on 242.
42. Quoted in Remini, Martin Van Buren and the Making of the Democratic Party, 131.
43. Remini, Martin Van Buren and the Making of the Democratic Party, 132.
44. Brown, “Missouri Crisis,” 248.
45. Ibid., 244–45.
46. James Stanton Chase, “Jacksonian Democracy and the Rise of the Nominating Convention,” Mid-America, 45, 1963, 229–49, quotation on 232.
47. Robert V. Remini, The Election of Andrew Jackson (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott, 1963), 16.
48. Ibid.
49. Larry Schweikart, “Focus of Power: Henry Clay as Speaker of the House,” Alabama Historian, 2, Spring 1981, 88–126.
50. Johnson, History of the American People, 323; Glyndon G. van Deusen, Life of Henry Clay (Boston: Little Brown & Co., 1937); Robert Remini, Henry Clay: Statesman for the Union (New York: W. W. Norton, 1991).
51. Johnson, History of the American People, 329.
52. Remini, Election of Andrew Jackson, 25.
53. Ibid., 28.
54. Ibid., 37.
55. Lynn Marshall, “The Strange Stillbirth of the Whig Party,” American Historical Review, 72, January 1967, 445–69, quotation on 457; Joel H. Silbey, “‘To One or Another of These Parties Every Man Belongs’: The American Political Experience from Andrew Jackson to the Civil War,” in Byron E. Shafer and Anthony J. Bager, eds. Contesting Democracy: Substance and Structure in American Political History (Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas, 2001), 65–92, quotation on 76.
56. Daniel Webster, The Private Correspondence of Daniel Webster, Fletcher Webster, ed., 2 vols. (Boston: Little, Brown, 1875), I:473; Clay quoted in Johnson, History of the American People, 339.
57. Johnson, History of the American People, 342.
58. Edward Pessen, Jacksonian America: Society, Personality, and Politics, rev. ed. (Homewood, IL: Dorsey Press, 1978); Sean Wilenz, Chants Democratic: New York City and the Rise of the American Working Class (New York: Oxford University Press, 1984); Harry L. Watson, Liberty and Power: The Politics of Jacksonian America (New York: Hill and Wang, 1990).
59. Alexander Saxton, The Rise and Fall of the White Republic (New York: Verso, 1990).
60. Robert V. Remini, Andrew Jackson and the Course of American Freedom, 1822–1832 (New York: Harper & Row, 1981), 261.
61. Ibid.
62. Ibid., 263.
63. Alfred A. Cowe, “Abuse of Power: Andrew Jackson and the Indian Removal Act of 1830,” Historian, 65 (Winter 2003), 1330–53.
64.
Michael P. Rogin, Fathers and Children: Andrew Jackson and the Subjugation of the American Indian (New York: Knopf, 1975).
65. “Proclamation of General Scott, May 10, 1838,” in Glen Fleischmann, The Cherokee Removal, 1838 (New York: Franklin Watts, 1971), 49–50.
66. Gary E. Moulton, ed., The Papers of Chief John Ross, vol. 1 (Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 1985), 636.
67. “A Native of Maine Traveling in the Western Country,” New York Observer, December 1838, quoted in Grant Foreman, Indian Removal: The Emigration of the Five Civilized Tribes of Indians (Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 1966), 306–307; Francis Paul Prucha, William T. Hagan, and Alvin M. Josephy Jr., American Indian Policy (Indianapolis: Indiana Historical Society, 1971).
68. Fleischmann, Cherokee Removal, 73.
69. Theda Purdue and Michael Green, The Cherokee Removal: A Brief History with Documents (Boston: St. Martin’s Press, 1995), 174–75.
70. Angie Debo, And Still the Waters Run: Betrayal of the Five Civilized Tribes (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1973); Anthony F. Wallace, The Long, Bitter Trail: Andrew Jackson and the Indians (New York: Hill and Wang, 1993); Robert V. Remini, Andrew Jackson and the Course of American Empire, 1767–1821 (New York: Harper & Row, 1977).
71. Joseph A. Durrenberger, Turnpikes: A Study of the Toll Road Movement in the Middle Atlantic States and Maryland (Valdosta, GA: Southern Stationery and Printing Company, 1931); Robert F. Hunter, “The Turnpike Movement in Virginia, 1816–1860,” Ph.D. Diss., Columbia University, 1957; Daniel B. Klein, “The Voluntary Provision of Public Goods? The Turnpike Companies of Early America,” Economic Inquiry, 28, October 1990, 788–812; David Beito, “From Privies to Boulevards: The Private Supply of Infrastructure in the United States During the Nineteenth Century,” in Jerry Jenkins and David E. Sisk, eds., Development by Consent: The Voluntary Supply of Public Goods and Services (San Francisco: Institute for Contemporary Studies, 1993), 23–49.
72. Jordan and Litwack, United States, 266.
73. William H. Freehling, Prelude to Civil War: The Nullification Controversy in South Carolina, 1816–1836 (New York: Harper & Row, 1966).
74. James L. Huston, “Property Rights in Slaves and the Coming of the Civil War,” Journal of Southern History, 79, May 1999, 248–86, quotation on 261.
75. Jordan and Litwack, United States, 228.
76. Ibid., 229.
77. Gillon and Matson, American Experiment, 383.
78. Tindall and Shi, America, 1:458.
79. Ibid., 1:460.
80. Remini, Andrew Jackson and the Course of American Freedom, 360.
81. The view that Jackson disliked on principle central banks in general or the BUS in particular is found in a wide range of scholarship of all political stripes. See Hammond, Banks and Politics in America from the Revolution to the Civil War; Peter Temin, The Jacksonian Economy (New York: W. W. Norton, 1969); Arthur Schlesinger Jr., The Age of Jackson (Boston: Little, Brown, 1945); John McFaul, The Politics of Jacksonian Finance (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1962); James R. Sharpe, The Jacksonians vs. The Banks (New York: Columbia, 1970).
82. See Schweikart, “Jacksonian Ideology, Currency Control and Central Banking,” 78–102.
83. “Plan for a National Bank,” in Amos Kendall to Andrew Jackson, November 20, 1829, Box 1, File 6, Andrew Jackson Papers, Tennessee Library and Archives, Nashville, Tennessee.
84. Richard Timberlake Jr., The Origins of Central Banking in the United States (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1978), who is perceptive to centralization, still misses this point.
85. James A. Hamilton, Reminiscences of James A. Hamilton (New York: Charles Scribner, 1869), 167–68.
86. David Martin’s three articles are critical in determining the Jacksonians’ intentions: “Metallism, Small Notes, and Jackson’s War with the B. U. S.,” Explorations in Economic History, 11, Spring 1974, 297–47; “Bimetallism in the United States Before 1850,” Journal of Political Economy, 76, May/June 1968, 428–42; “1853: The End of Bimetallism in the United States,” Journal of Economic History, 33, December 1973, 825–44; J. Van Fenstermaker and John E. Filer, “Impact of the First and Second Bank of the United States and the Suffolk System on New England Money, 1791–1837,” Journal of Money, Credit and Banking, 18, February 1986, 28–40; Fenstermaker, The Development of American Commercial Banking (Kent, OH: Kent State University Press, 1965); Fritz Redlich, The Molding of American Banking, Men and Ideas, 2 vols. (New York: Johnson Reprint Co., 1968 [1947]); Larry Schweikart, “U.S. Commercial Banking: A Historiographical Survey,” Business History Review, 65, Autumn 1991, 606–61.
87. Richard Timberlake, “The Significance of Unaccounted Currencies,” Journal of Economic History, 41, December 1981, 853–66.
88. Edwin J. Perkins, “Lost Opportunities for Compromise in the Bank War: A Reassessment of Jackson’s Veto Message,” Business History Review, 61, Winter 1987, 531–50.
89. Tindall and Shi, America, 1:467.
90. The liberal spin on Jackson’s presidency as champion of the common man is near universal. David M. Kennedy, The American Pageant, 12th ed. (New York: Houghton-Mifflin, 2002), 271, calls Jackson the “idol of the masses” who “easily defeated the big-money Kentuckian.” Gillon and Matson (American Experiment) echo the theme by claiming, “It was clear to most obesrvers that the Democrats swept up the support of the northeastern working men, western farmers, rising entrepreneurs, shopkeepers, and ambitious professionals who favored Jacksonian attacks against privilege….” (385). David Goldfield, et al., in The American Journey: A History of the United States, combined edition (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1998) portray Jackson as the champion of these who “felt threatened by outside centers of power beyond their control” (293) and who alienated “the business community and eastern elites” (301). The National Republican/Whig agenda allows John Murrin, et al. (Liberty, Equality, Power) to claim that the “Jacksonians were opposed by those who favored an activist central government” (441), when Jackson had expanded the power and scope of the central government more than Jefferson, Madison, Monroe, and Adams combined. Liberty, Equality, Power concludes, of the Bank War, that “a majority of the voters shared Jackson’s attachment to a society of virtuous, independent producers…they also agreed that the republic was in danger of subversion by parasites who grew rich by manipulating credit, prices, paper money and government-bestowed privileges” (442). Of course, it isn’t mentioned that the Jacksonians virtually invented “government-bestowed privileges,” and that if one eliminates the “northeastern working men, western farmers, rising entrepreneurs, shopkeepers, and ambitious professionals,” there would have been no one left to vote for Clay, yet the Kentuckian managed 530,000 popular votes to Jackson’s 688,000. In short, either the nation was comprised of big-money aristocracies, or vast numbers of common people rejected Jackson—not a majority, but nowhere near the tidal wave of votes that many of the mainstream histories would suggest.
91. See Temin, Jacksonian Economy, passim.
92. Peter Rousseau, “Jacksonian Monetary Policy, Specie Flows, and the Panic of 1837,” Journal of Economic History, June 2002, 457–88.
93. Historical Statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to 1970 (White Plains: Kraus International Publications, 1989), I:211, 1114–15. Special thanks to Tiarr Martin, whose unpublished paper, “The Growth of Government During the ‘Age of Jefferson and Jackson,’” was prepared for one of Schweikart’s classes and is in his possession.
Chapter 7. Red Foxes and Bear Flags, 1836–48
1. Tindall and Shi, America, 1:474.
2. Richard Hofstadter, “Marx of the Master Class,” in Sidney Fine and Gerald S. Brown, eds., The American Past, 3rd ed., vol. 1 (London: Macmillan, 1970), 460–80.
3. Maurice Baxter, Henry Clay and the American System (Lexington, KY: University of Kentucky Press, 1995).
4. Ronald Walters, American Reformers, 1815–1860 (New York: Hill and Wang, 1978); Alice F
elt Tyler, Freedom’s Ferment: Phases of American Social History from the Colonial Period to the Outbreak of the Civil War (New York: Harper and Row, 1944).
5. Walters, American Reformers, passim.
6. The official history of the Seventh-Day Adventists appears at http://www. adventist.org/history.
7. Larry Schweikart, The Entrepreneurial Adventure: A History of Business in the United States (Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt, 2000), 210–11.
8. Robert Peel, Christian Science: Its Encounter with American Culture (New York: Holt, 1958).
9. Johnson, History of the American People, 297.
10. Walters, American Reformers, 27.
11. Quoted at http://xroads.virginia.edu/~HYPER/DETOC/religion/finney.html, from Finney’s memoirs.
12. Tyler, Freedom’s Ferment, 41; Walters, Jacksonian Reformers, 35–36.
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