25. Roger Ransom and Richard Sutch, One Kind of Freedom: The Economic Consequences of Emancipation (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977); and their articles, “The Impact of the Civil War and of Emancipation on Southern Agriculture,” Explorations in Economic History, 12, 1975, 1–28; “The Ex-Slave in the Postbellum South: A Study of the Impact of Racism in a Market Environment,” Journal of Economic History, 33, 1973, 131–48; and “Debt Peonage in the Cotton South after the Civil War,” Journal of Economic History, 32, 1972, 641–679.
26. Robert A. Margo, “Accumulation of Property by Southern Blacks Before World War I: Comment and Further Evidence,” American Economic Review, 74, 1984, 768–76.
27. Robert C. Kenzer, Black Economic Success in North Carolina, 1865–1995 (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1989), 18, table 5.
28. Theodore Rosengarten, All God’s Dangers: The Life of Nate Shaw (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1974).
29. “Andrew Jackson Beard,” in A Salute to Black Scientists and Inventors, vol. 2 (Chicago: Empak Enterprises and Richard L. Green, n.d. ), 6.
30. Robert C. Kenzer, “The Black Business Community in Post Civil War Virginia,” Southern Studies, new series, 4, Fall 1993, 229–52.
31. Kenzer, “Black Business,” passim.
32. Leon Litwack, Been in the Storm So Long: The Aftermath of Slavery (New York: Vintage, 1980), 8.
33. Ibid., 18.
34. Ibid., 298.
35. Louis R. Harlan, Booker T. Washington: The Making of a Black Leader, 1865–1901 (New York: Oxford, 1972), and his Booker T. Washington: The Wizard of Tuskegee, 1901–1915 (New York: Oxford, 1983).
36. Walter I. Fleming, Documentary History of Reconstruction: Political, Military, Social, Religious, Educational and Industrial, 1865 to the Present Time vol. 1 (Cleveland, Ohio: Arthur H. Clark, 1905), 231–33.
37. Rembert W. Patrick, The Reconstruction of the Nation (New York: Oxford, 1967), 42.
38. David E. Bernstein, Only One Place of Redress: African-Americans, Labor Relations and the Courts from Reconstruction to the New Deal (Durham: Duke University Press, 2001).
39. Hummel, Emancipating Slaves, 317.
40. William S. McFeely, Yankee Stepfather: O. O. Howard and the Freedmen’s Bureau (New York: Norton, 1968), 22.
41. Ibid., 33, 85.
42. Ibid., 89. See also Timothy L. Smith, Revivalism and Social Reform in Mid-Century America (New York: Harper & Row, 1957).
43. McFeely, Yankee Stepfather, 105.
44. Litwack, Been in the Storm So Long, 376.
45. Ibid., 386.
46. McFeely, Yankee Stepfather, 92.
47. Kenneth M. Stampp, The Era of Reconstruction, 1865–1877 (New York: Vintage, 1963), 102.
48. Ibid., 102.
49. Ibid., 104–5.
50. Randall, Civil War and Reconstruction, 723.
51. Hummel, Emancipating Slaves, 299.
52. Patrick, Reconstruction of the Nation, 71.
53. Hummel, Emancipating Slaves, 299.
54. U.S. Statutes at Large, 14 (April 9, 1866), 27.
55. James E. Sefton, Andrew Johnson and the Uses of Constitutional Power (Boston: Little, Brown, 1980), 132.
56. Kenneth E. Mann, “Blanche Kelso Bruce: United States Senator Without a Constituency,” Journal of Mississippi History, 3, May 1976, 183–98; William C. Harris, “Blanche K. Bruce of Mississippi: Conservative Assimilationist,” in Howard N. Rabinowitz, ed., Southern Black Leaders of the Reconstruction Era (Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 1982), 3–38; Samuel L. Shapiro, “A Black Senator from Mississippi: Blanche K. Bruce (1841–1898),” Review of Politics, 44, January 1982, 83–109.
57. Stampp, Era of Reconstruction, 174.
58. Ibid., 175.
59. Ibid.
60. Michael Perman, The Road to Redemption: Southern Politics, 1869–1879 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1984), 74–75.
61. John Hope Franklin, Reconstruction After the Civil War (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1961), 76.
62. Ibid.
63. Ibid., 77.
64. Frank P. Blair to Samuel J. Tilden, July 15, 1868, in John Bigelow, ed., Letters and Literary Memorials of Samuel J. Tilden, vol. 1 (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1908), 241.
65. David Montgomery, Beyond Equality: Labor and the Radical Republican, 1862–1872 (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1967), 353.
66. Allan Nevins, Hamilton Fish: The Inner History of the Grant Administration (New York: Dodd Mead, 1936), 131–36.
67. Ulysses S. Grant, Personal Memoirs of U. S. Grant (New York: Smithmark, 1994).
68. Geoffrey Perret, Ulysses S. Grant: Soldier and President (New York: Random House, 1997).
69. James K. Medbury, Men and Mysteries of Wall Street (New York: Fields, Osgood, 1870), 264–65; Kenneth D. Acerman, The Gold Ring: Jim Fisk, Jay Gould and Black Friday, 1869 (New York: Harper Business, 1988).
70. Burton Folsom Jr., Myth of the Robber Barons: A New Look at the Rise of Big Business in America (Herndon, VA: Young America’s Foundation, 1991), 18.
71. Ibid.
72. Ibid.
73. Stephen E. Ambrose, Nothing Like It in the World: The Men Who Built the Transcontinental Railroad, 1863–1869 (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2000).
74. Robert W. Fogel, The Union Pacific Railroad: A Case of Premature Enterprise (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1960); Jay Boyd Crawford, The Credit Mobilier of America: Its Origins and History, Its Work of Constructing the Union Pacific Railroad and the Relation of Members of Congress Therewith (New York: Greenwood Press, 1969).
75. Mark W. Summers, The Era of Good Stealings (New York: Oxford, 1993).
76. Perman, Road to Redemption, 135.
77. Ibid., 191.
78. Ibid., 217.
79. Ibid., 277.
80. Jennifer Roback, “The Political Economy of Segregation: The Case of Segregated Streetcars,” Journal of Political Economy, 46, December 1986, 893–917.
81. Gillon and Matson, American Experiment, 635.
82. Ibid., 636.
83. Ari Hoogenboom, Rutherford B. Hayes: Warrior and President (Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas, 1995), 187.
84. Hayes quoted in Hoogenboom, Rutherford B. Hayes, 199.
85. Hoogenboom, Rutherford B. Hayes, 260.
86. Ibid., 278.
Chapter 11. Lighting Out for the Territories, 1861–90
1. Mark Twain, Roughing It (New York: Signet, 1962 [1872]), 29–30.
2. Howard R. Lamar, ed., The New Encyclopedia of the American West (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998); Clyde A. Milner II, Carol A. O’Connor, Martha A. Sandweiss, eds., The Oxford History of the American West (New York: Oxford, 1994).
3. Frederick Jackson Turner, “The Significance of the Frontier in American History,” presented at the American Historical Association, Chicago, 1893, and his The Frontier in American History (New York: Holt, 1935). Biographical works on Turner include Allan G. Bogue, Frederick Jackson Turner (Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 1998); Ray A. Billington, Frederick Jackson Turner: Historian, Teacher, and Scholar (New York: Oxford, 1973).
4. George Rogers Taylor, The Transportation Revolution, 1815–1860 (New York: Holt Rinehart, 1962); Guy S. Callender, “The Early Transportation and Banking Enterprises of the States in Relation to the Growth of the Corporation,” Quarterly Journal of Economics, 17 (1902), 111–62; and Albert Fishlow, “Internal Transportation,” in Lance Davis, et al., eds., American Economic Growth (New York: Harper & Row, 1972), 468–547; Carlos Schwantes, Long Day’s Journey: The Steamboat and Stagecoach Era in the Northern West (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1999).
5. Daniel B. Klein, “The Voluntary Provision of Public Goods? The Turnpike Companies of Early America,” Economic Inquiry, October 1990, 788–812; David Beito, “From Privies to Boulevards: The Private Supply of Infrastructure in the United States During the Nineteenth Century,” in Jerry Jenkins and David E. Sisk, eds., The Voluntary Supply of
Public Goods and Services (San Francisco: Institute for Contemporary Studies, 1993), 23–49; Christopher T. Baer, Daniel B. Klein, and John Majewski, “From Trunk to Branch Toll Roads in New York, 1800–1860,” in Edwin Perkins, ed., Essays in Economic and Business History, 11 (1992), 191–209.
6. John D. Unruh, The Plains Across: The Overland Emigrants and the Trans-Mississippi West, 1840–60 (Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 1993) documented only 350 deaths from Indian attacks between 1840 and 1860.
7. Don Rickey Jr., $10 Horse, $40 Saddle (Lincoln, NB: University of Nebraska Press, 1976).
8. Edward Hungerford, Wells Fargo, Advancing the American Frontier (New York: Random House, 1949); Noel L. Loomis, Wells Fargo (New York: Bramhall House, 1968).
9. Louis C. Hunter, Steamboats on the Western Rivers: An Economic and Technological History (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1949).
10. Douglas J. Puffert, “The Standardization of Track Gauge on North American Railways, 1830–1890,” Journal of Economic History, 60, December 2000, 933–60.
11. Carlos Schwantes, The Pacific Northwest, 2nd. ed. (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1996), 193–99.
12. William L. Lang, “Using and Abusing Abundance: The Western Resource Economy and the Environment,” in Michael P. Malone, ed., Historians and the American West (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1983); Donald Worster, Under Western Skies: Nature and History in the American West (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992); John Opie, “The Environment and the Frontier,” in Roger L. Nichols, ed., American Frontier and Western Issues: A Historiographical Review (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1986); Terry L. Anderson and Donald R. Leal, “Free Market Versus Political Environmentalism,” in Michael E. Zimmerman, ed., Environ- mental Philosophy: From Animal Rights to Radical Ecology (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1998), 364–74.
13. Vernon Carstensen, The Public Lands: Studies in the History of the Public Domain (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1962); Paul Wallace Gates, History of Public Land Law Development (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1968).
14. Richard White, “It’s Your Misfortune and None of My Own”: A History of the American West (Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991); Patricia Limerick, The Legacy of Conquest: The Unbroken Past of the American West (New York: Norton, 1987); Douglass C. North, Growth and Welfare in the American Past (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1966); Ronald Coase, “The Problem of Social Cost,” Journal of Law and Economics, 3 (1960), 1–44.
15. John D. Haegar, “Business Strategy and Practice in the Early Republic: John Jacob Astor and the American Fur Trade,” Western Historical Quarterly, May 1988, 183–202; Hiram M. Chit-tenden, The American Fur Trade of the Far West, 3 vols. (New York: Francis M. Harper, 1902); Michael F. Konig, “John Jacob Astor,” in Larry Schweikart, ed., Encyclopedia of American Business History and Biography: Banking and Finance to 1913 (New York: Facts on File, 1990), 13–25; Kenneth W. Porter, John Jacob Astor, Business Man, 2 vols. (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1931). On banking, see Lynne Pierson Doti and Larry Schweikart, Banking in the American West from the Gold Rush to Deregulation (Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991), passim.
16. Terry L. Anderson and Donald R. Leal, “Fishing for Property Rights to Fish,” in Roger E. Meiners and Bruce Yandle, eds., Taking the Environment Seriously (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 1993), 161–84.
17. Robert Sobel and David B. Sicilia, The Entrepreneurs: An American Adventure (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1986), and Schweikart, The Entrepreneurial Adventure, 200–2.
18. Stephen J. Pyne, Fire in America: A Cultural History of Wildland and Rural Fire (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1982), 11.
19. W. E. Haskell, The International Paper Company: 1898–1924: Its Origins and Growth in a Quarter of a Century with a Brief Description of the Manufacture of Paper from Harvesting Pulpwood to the Finished Roll (New York: International Paper, 1924).
20. Clinton Woods, Ideas that Became Big Business (Baltimore: Founders, Inc., 1959), 110.
21. Thomas R. Cox, Mills and Markets: A History of the Pacific Coast Lumber Industry to 1900 (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1974); Thomas R. Cox, et al., This Well-Wooded Land: Americans and Their Forests from Colonial Times to the Present (Lincoln, NB: University of Nebraska Press, 1985); Michael Williams, Americans and Their Forests: A Historical Geography (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989).
22. Don Worcester, The Texas Longhorn: Relic of the Past, Asset for the Future (College Station, Texas: Texas A&M University Press, 1987).
23. Jimmy M. Skaggs, The Cattle Trailing Industry: Between Supply and Demand (Lawrence, KS: University of Kansas Press, 1973).
24. Richard White, “Animals and Enterprise,” in Milner, et al., eds, Oxford History of the American West, 237–73; Maruice Frink, et al., When Grass was King: Contribution to the Western Range Cattle Industry Study (Boulder: University of Colorado Press, 1956).
25. Robert M. Dykstra, The Cattle Towns (New York: Knopf, 1968).
26. Jimmy M. Skaggs, Prime Cut: Livestock Raising and Meat-packing in the United States (College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 1986); Ernest S. Osgood, The Day of the Cattleman (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1929).
27. J. Marvin Hunter, The Trail Drivers of Texas (New York: Argosy-Antiquarian, 1963).
28. Richard Maxwell Brown, “Western Violence: Structure, Values, Myth,” Western Historical Quarterly, February 1993, 5–10; and his No Duty to Retreat: Violence and Values in American History and Society (New York: Oxford, 1991).
29. Roger McGrath, Gunfighters, Highwaymen & Vigilantes: Violence on the Frontier (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984).
30. Dykstra, The Cattle Towns, passim.
31. Paul Wallace Gates, Free Homesteads for all Americans: The Homestead Act of 1862 (Washington, Civil War Centennial Commission, 1962); David M. Ellis et al., The Frontier in American Developments: Essays in Honor of Paul Wallace Gates (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1969); David B. Danbom, Born in the Country: A History of Rural America (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995); Morton Rothstein, ed., Quantitative Studies in Agrarian History (Ames Iowa: Iowa State University Press, 1993).
32. Wayne Broehl Jr., John Deere’s Company: A History of Deere and Company and Its Times (New York: Doubleday, 1984); Oliver E. Allen, “Bet-A-Million,” Audacity, Fall 1996, 18–31; Schweikart, Entrepreneurial Adventure, 63–65.
33. John T. Schlebecker, Whereby We Thrive: A History of American Farming, 1607–1972 (Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1975).
34. Gerald McFarland, A Scattered People: An American Family Moves West (New York: Pantheon, 1985).
35. Johnson, A History of the American People, 515.
36. Larry Schweikart, “John Warne Gates,” in Paul Pascoff, ed., Encyclopedia of American Business History and Biography: Iron and Steel in the 19th Century (New York: Facts on File, 1989), 146–47.
37. Andrew C. Isenberg, The Destruction of the Bison (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000).
38. Isenberg, Destruction of the Bison, 23; Shepard Kretch III, The Ecological Indian: Myth and History (New York: W. W. Norton, 1999), 106.
39. Kretch, Ecological Indian, 213.
40. Isenberg, Destruction of the Bison, passim.
41. Frank Gilbert Roe, The North American Buffalo: A Critical Study of the Species in Its Wild State (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1951), 609.
42. Edwin Thompson Denig, Five Indian Tribes of the Upper Missouri: Sioux, Arikaras, Assiniboines, Crees, Crows, ed. John C. Dwers (Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 1961), 79.
43. Kretch, Ecological Indian, 128.
44. Isenberg, Destruction of the Bison, 84.
45. Alfred W. Crosby, Ecological Imperialism: The Biological Expansion of Europe, 900–1900 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1986); William Cronon, Changes in the Land: Indians, Colonists, and the Ecology of New England (New York: Hill and Wa
ng, 1983).
46. The million-dollar figure includes all related expenses. Bernard Bailyn et al., The Great Republic: A History of the American People (Lexington, MA: D. C. Heath, 1985), 522.
47. Helen Hunt Jackson, A Century of Dishonor: A Sketch of the United States Government’s Dealings with Some of the Indian Tribes (Boston: Little, Brown, 1903 [1885]).
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