The Universe Within
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Carnie, Margaret, 22, 97–99
cellphones, 47, 160, 214. See also smartphones
CERN (European Organization for Nuclear Research), 84, 192. See also Large Hadron Collider
Cicero: On the Nature of the Gods, 153
classical physics/universe: Newton and, 20, 25–26, 30, 48, 56–95, 112, 118–19, 206, 210; quantum theory and, 48, 56–95, 115–16, 168, 171, 179–80, 183–85, 196, 206, 210, 234–35, 256. See also quantum theory
communication/information technology, 5, 56, 91, 209–39; Bell/Bell Labs and, 35, 213–14, 215; and democratic movements, 203; and information overload, 68–69, 203, 209–11; McLuhan on, 225–27, 230; as problematic, 198, 203, 209; satellites and, 128–29, 151–52, 205, 236, 237; Teilhard de Chardin on, 227–28, 230; transistor and, 215–17, 218, 235; vacuum tubes and, 212–13, 215
complex numbers, 74–75, 168–71; and Euler’s formula, 75–76, 170–71; and Schrödinger’s wave equation, 76–77, 168–70, 171
computers, 68–69, 167–68, 170, 203, 209, 212, 213, 214; digital nature of, 230–33, 237–38; predictions about, 227–28, 230; quantum, 218–25, 233, 238–39; storage capacity of, 217–18. See also quantum computers
conserved quantities, Noether’s theorem on, 176–78, 179–80
Copenhagen, University of, 59, 126
Copernicus, and concept of heliocentric universe, 20, 21, 25, 100
Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE), 130–36; and DMR experiment, 132–36; and FIRAS experiment, 131–32
“cosmological term” (Einstein), 120–21, 122; and vacuum energy, 136–37
cosmology, historical: of ancient Greece, 8–9, 20, 25, 52–53, 99–100, 102, 118, 152–53, 205; of Newtonian universe, 20, 25–26, 30, 48, 56–95, 112, 118–19, 206, 210; of Renaissance Italy, 18, 20–21, 25, 28–29, 100–1, 205
cosmology, modern, 96–155; background radiation and, 127–33, 214; complex numbers and, 75, 95; cyclic universe theory of, 149–54; dark matter and, 134–35, 138; Einstein and, 110–13, 118–22; Friedmann and, 121–23; Gamow and, 125–28; inflationary theory of, 106–10, 136, 139–54; Lemaître and, 123–25; vacuum energy and, 136–38. See also big bang theory; singularity, at moment of big bang
Cosmos (television series), 157
Coulomb, Charles Augustin de, 44
Croton (southern Italy): Pythagoreans and, 9
Curie, Marie, 58, 59, 70, 91, 126
Curie, Pierre, 58, 70
cyclic universe, theory of, 149–52; precursors of, 153–54. See also inflation, theory of
dark matter, 134–35, 138, 187, 200
Darwin, Charles: library of, 223; and theory of evolution, 228, 229, 246–47
Davy, Sir Humphrey: Bakerian Lecture by, 240–41; and Faraday, 36–37, 251
Dawkins, Richard, 246–47
Dicke, Robert, 130, 131
Differential Microwave Radiator (DMR), 132–36
digital vs analog technology, 203, 230–33, 237–39
diodes, 213, 215
Dirac, Paul, 58, 59, 60, 181–87, 197; “bra-ket” notation of, 181; education of, 181–82; and Feynman’s formulation, 92, 183–84; on mathematics, 156, 183, 185–87; matter particle equation of, 92, 172–73, 174, 175–76, 182–83, 196, 199; and prediction of positron, 92, 173, 182; and quantum electrodynamics, 92, 183; and quantum theory, 182, 183–85; on Schrödinger’s wave equation, 186; unassuming personality of, 182, 185, 187
Dirac field (ψ), 173, 174, 175–76
DNA, 200, 201, 231–33, 239
“double-slit experiment,” 78–80, 93
e (Euler’s number), 75, 92, 170–71
Echo 1 (balloon satellite), 128, 129
Eda, Abonnema (fictional character), 157, 167
Eddington, Arthur, 121, 124
Edinburgh, 31–32, 185
Edinburgh, University of, 11, 31, 32, 35, 213
education, scientific: in Africa, 156–67; in ancient Greece, 51–53, 211; of Dirac, 181–82; in internet age, 5, 203, 211–12, 255; of Maxwell, 34–35; in medieval universities, 10; Noether’s contribution to, 178–81; of Scottish Enlightenment, 32, 34, 211, 213
Ehrenfest, Paul, 59
Einstein, Albert, 18, 21, 49, 51, 59, 99, 106, 109, 186, 197, 199, 204, 206, 210; and confirmation of Planck’s work, 64–70, 72; “cosmological term” of, 120–21, 122, 136–39; Dirac on, 184; Hume’s influence on, 14; and initial unease over quantum theory, 70, 77, 80–81, 91; as invoked by AIMS, 164–65; and mass-energy equivalence, 113–16; and Maxwell’s theory, 47–48, 101–2, 110–12; on Noether, 180–81; and photoelectric effect, 58, 69; at Solvay Conference, 58, 59, 80–81; and theory of general relativity, 116–25, 133, 147, 165, 172, 174, 179, 189–90, 193, 195, 196, 199; and theory of special relativity, 47, 94, 101–2, 110–16, 138–39; and “ultraviolet catastrophe,” 68–69, 196
Einstein–Poldolsky–Rosen critique of quantum theory, 81–82, 233–34; and Bell’s Theorem, 83–91, 234; Pauli
on, 82
ekpyrosis (Stoic concept of cosmology), 153
electricity: Faraday’s work on, 37–39; and modern electronics, 212–18; and plot of Frankenstein, 37, 240–42; public experiments using, 37, 241; quantum theory and, 92, 214–18
electromagnetic waves: and background radiation, 127–30; and big bang theory, 103–6, 123–24, 127–30; and colour of light, 47, 61–62, 64, 68, 123–24; length of, 47, 61–62, 65–68, 71–72, 190, 210, 265n7; and mass-energy equivalence, 114–15; and quantum theory, 61–72; speed of, 45–46; types/applications of, 47, 111
electromagnetism, 39–40; and big bang theory, 103–6, 123–24, 127–30; and electroweak theory, 172, 174; Faraday’s work on, 38, 40–42, 45, 84; Maxwell’s work on, 34, 36, 39, 42–48, 56, 61, 63, 84, 92, 101, 110–12, 115, 172, 174, 175, 210; and Newton’s theories, 33, 40–41, 43, 47; previous work related to, 44–45; and quantum theory, 46, 48, 61–72, 101–2
electroweak theory, 107, 172, 173, 174, 178, 188, 196
Englert, François, 174
Epicurus, 253
Erlangen, University of, 178
ethics: Hume on, 14–15; of reciprocity, 253
Euclid, 52, 269n9
Euler, Leonhard, 75, 170, 192; beta function formula of, 192
Euler’s formula (complex analysis), 75, 170–71; Heisenberg’s use of, 75–78; and number e, 75, 92, 170–71; and number i, 75, 170
European Space Agency, 151. See also Planck satellite
evolution, theory of (Darwin), 228, 229, 246–47
Facebook, 204
Fairchild Semiconductor, 217
Faraday, Michael, 33, 36–42, 50, 101; and concept of force field, 39, 40–42, 43, 45, 84; and Davy, 36–37, 251; and electricity, 37–39; and electromagnetism, 38, 40–42, 45, 84; Maxwell’s continuation of work by, 36, 39, 42–48, 84, 101, 111; and Newton’s law of gravitation, 40–41, 116–17; as non-mathematician, 39, 42; as tireless experimenter, 38–39, 42
Far Infrared Absolute Spectrophotometer (FIRAS), 131–32
Fermat, Pierre de, 62
Ferro, Scipione del, 73–74
Feynman, Richard, 249, 250; on Euler’s formula, 75; and formulation of quantum theory (“sum over histories”), 92–93, 169–70, 171, 179, 183–84, 196; on nuclear bomb, 10; on quantum computers, 219–20; and quantum electrodynamics, 92, 183
Fifth Solvay International Conference on Electrons and Photons (1927), 56–60, 76–77, 80–81
Fitzgerald, F. Scott, 80
Fizeau, Hippolyte, 45
force fields: Faraday’s concept of, 39, 40–42, 43, 45, 84; force-
carrier particles of, 148, 174–76; Maxwell’s work on, 42–46, 80, 172, 174, 199. See also particle physics
formula for all known physics, 167–201; as analogy for society/humanity, 197–201; Dirac’s equation and, 172–73, 174, 175–76, 182–83, 196, 199; Einstein’s the
ory of gravity and, 172, 174, 189–90, 196, 199; Euler’s number and, 170–71; Feynman’s formulation and, 92–93, 169–71, 183–84, 196; and goal of scientific education/learning, 156–67, 199–200; Hamilton’s action principle and, 171, 183; Higgs field and, 173, 174–75, 178, 189; Higgs mechanism and, 174; Higgs potential energy and, 175, 190; Maxwell–Yang–Mills force field theories and, 172, 174, 199; Noether’s theorem and, 176–78, 179–80; as problematic, 187–91; Schrödinger’s wavefunction and, 92–93, 168–71, 183; string theory as alternative to, 191–95; Yukawa–Kobayashi–Maskawa matter particle mass term and, 173
Fourier analysis in time, 72–73, 75
Franklin, Benjamin, 44, 177–78
Friedmann, Alexander, 121–23, 125, 127, 154
Galileo, 18, 23, 28–29, 100–1, 117, 205, 253; Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, 13; and heliocentric universe, 20–21, 25, 100; Two New Sciences, 21
gamma rays, 47, 111
Gamow, George, 125–28; and concept of background radiation, 127–28; and stellar energy conference, 126; as U.S. Navy consultant, 126
Gandhi, Mohandas, 6
Gates, Bill, 166
Gauss, Carl Friedrich, 44
general relativity. See theory of general relativity
geometry, 7, 20, 52; in academic curriculum, 10, 32, 197; Anaximander’s use of, 53; and art, 16, 17; of curved space, 118; Einstein and, 51, 118, 184; Euler’s formula and, 75, 170; of four-dimensional space, 143; Leonardo’s use of, 17; Pythagorean theorem of, 8; and quantum theory, 76–77, 93, 170; of universe, 143, 210, 246, 256
Glasgow, University of, 31, 34
Glashow, Sheldon Lee, 172, 174, 188
Godwin, William, 240
Google, 204, 237
Göttingen, University of, 178–79, 180
Grangier, Philippe, 90
gravitation, Einstein’s law of. See theory of general relativity
gravitation, Newton’s law of, 23, 25–26, 27–28, 29, 30, 33, 101, 172; Faraday and, 40–41, 116–17; and ocean tides, 28, 33, 117
Greece, ancient, science/mathematics in, 13, 17, 18, 51–55, 186–87, 211, 250, 253–54; cosmology and, 8–9, 20, 25, 52–53, 99–100, 102, 118, 152–53, 205; and modern notation, 167, 168, 173, 174; Pythagoras and, 8–9, 52, 53, 74, 77, 167, 168–69, 205; Raphael’s painting of, 51–52, 56; and story of Prometheus, 37, 240, 242
Gross, David J., 172, 188
Guralink, Gerald, 174
Guth, Alan, 106; and theory of inflation, 107–8, 121, 141
h. See Planck’s constant
Hagen, Carl, 174
Hahne, Fritz, 161–62
Hamilton, William Rowan,
action principle of, 62–64; and Feynman’s formulation, 92–93, 169–70, 171, 179, 183–84; and Planck’s constant, 62–64, 71
Hartle, James. See entry below
Hartle–Hawking proposal, 97, 142–45, 146, 149; and “anthropic principle,” 144–45, 146, 150; as “no boundary” proposal, 143, 152–53; Parmenides’ prefiguring of, 152–53; Vilenkin and, 142, 143
Hawking, Stephen, 29, 52, 106, 136, 151–52; author’s work with, 97, 143–44. See also entry above
Hawking–Turok instanton, 143–44
heat, theory of: Kelvin and, 35, 56; Maxwell and, 36, 47, 48; and thermal equilibrium, 65–68, 94
Heisenberg, Werner, 56–57, 58, 59, 60, 197; and matrix mechanics, 56–57, 58, 72, 75–78; uncertainty principle of, 57, 77–78, 109, 217–19; and use of Euler’s formula, 75–78
Heraclitus of Ephesus, 52, 153
Herman, Arthur: How the Scots Invented the Modern World, 31–32
Herman, Robert, 127–28, 130
Hertog, Thomas, 144, 145
Hertz, Heinrich, 42
hidden variable theories, 83–84
Higgs, Peter, 174
Higgs boson/particle, 5, 175, 196, 206, 255–56
Higgs field (φ), 107, 110, 171, 173, 174–75, 178, 188, 189
Higgs mechanism, 174, 236
Higgs potential energy [V(φ)], 175, 190
High-Z Supernova Search Team, 137
Hilbert, David, 178, 179
Hitler, Adolf, 180
Hooft, Gerard ’t, 172
Hubble, Edwin, 123–24
Hubble length, 255, 256
Hubble Telescope, 119
Hume, David, 11–15, 31, 32, 152, 253; Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion, 13, 247; An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding, 11–14; ethics of, 14–15; as influence on Einstein, 14
Huxley, Julian, 229–30
Huxley, T. H., 96, 229
Hypatia, 52
i (imaginary number; square root of minus one), 72–75, 92, 93–95, 168, 206; and Euler’s formula, 75, 170–71; and matrix mechanics, 72–76; and time as imaginary dimension of space, 94–95
IBM Labs, 218
Imperial College (London), 106
Industrial Revolution, 30, 32–33, 56, 239
inflation, theory of, 106–10, 136, 139–54; vs. cyclic universe theory, 149–54; Guth’s proposal of, 107–8, 121, 141; Hartle–Hawking proposal and, 142–45, 146, 149; M-theory and, 146–49; problems of, 109–10, 139–42; and vacuum energy, 140, 144, 146–47, 170, 179
information, 5–6; computer storage of, 217–18; and knowledge-based companies, 204; overload of, 68–69, 203, 209–11; security/encryption of, 220, 224. See also communication/information technology; computers; internet
Institute for Theoretical Physics (University of Copenhagen), 59, 126
integral sign, 169–71
Intel, 217
International Linear Collider, 236–37
internet, 6, 19, 68, 167, 220, 252; collaborative knowledge on, 203, 211; companies based on, 204; and education, 5, 203, 211–12, 255; predicted use/problems of, 227–28, 230
Jewish scientists/scholars: discriminatory treatment of, 59–60, 178, 199; and Nazi regime, 180
Johns Hopkins University, 137
Kelly, Mervin, 214, 215, 216
Kelvin, Lord (William Thomson), 34–35, 44, 213; and theory of heat, 35, 56; and Treatise on Natural Philosophy, 35
Kenya, 22, 166
Kepler, Johannes, 25
Keynes, John Maynard, 24
Khartoum, University of, 164
Kibble, Tom, 174
King’s College (London), 36, 43, 251
Kirchhoff, Gustav, 44
Klein, Felix, 178, 179
Kobayashi, Makoto, 173
kosmos (universe), 99–100
Krauss, Lawrence: A Universe from Nothing, 246–47
Kurlbaum, Ferdinand, 64
Landau, Lev D., and “Landau ghost,” 188
Large Hadron Collider, 5, 47, 107, 175, 205, 236–37
Laughlin, Robert, 235
Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm, 62
Lemaître, Georges, 123–25, 127, 136, 154; and big bang theory, 124–25, 228; “Primeval Atom” hypothesis of, 124–25, 143
Lenard, Philipp, 69
Lenz, Heinrich, 44
Leonardo da Vinci, 16–17; The Last Supper, 17; Mona Lisa, 17
Lesotho, author’s teaching post in, 158–59
Leuven, University of, 144
libraries, 55, 223–24
light: colour of, 28, 35, 47, 61–62, 64, 68, 123–24; and “double-slit experiment,” 78–79; and electromagnetism, 42–48, 101, 110–13; energy packets of (photons), 58, 61–72, 78–79, 93, 103, 148, 175; Leonardo’s understanding of, 17; and mass-energy equivalence, 113–16; and photoelectric effect, 58, 69; spectrum of, 47, 62, 64, 128, 131–32; speed of, 45, 84, 89–90, 104–5, 110–17, 138–39, 193. See also electromagnetism; photons; quantum theory
Linde, Andrei, 106
Lorentz, Hendrik, 47, 58; and Lorenz contraction, 113, 138–39; and Lorentz transformat
ion, 112–13, 115, 116
Maasai people, 7
Mandela, Nelson, 3, 50, 160
Mandela, Winnie, 160
Manutius, Aldus, 55
Marx, Karl, 6
Maskawa, Toshihide, 173
mass-energy equivalence, Einstein’s formula of (E = mc2), 113–16
mass media, 225–26
mathematics: in academic curriculum, 10, 32, 34; of complex numbers, 74–77, 168–71; of curved space, 118, 147; development/early history of, 7–9; Dirac on, 156, 183, 185–87; of Euler’s formula, 75, 92, 170–71; Galileo and, 18, 20; Hume on, 12, 13; of imaginary numbers, 72–76, 92, 93–95, 168, 206; Leonardo on, 16–17; of Maxwell’s electromagnetic theory, 42–46, 210; and music, 9, 19, 75; Newton’s work in, 23–31, 43, 101; and physics, 19–21; Pythagorean, 8–9, 77, 167, 168–69; and quantum computing, 220, 222, 224; and study of nature/world, 15–19. See also algebra; arithmetic; calculus; geometry; individual scientists/mathematicians
matrix mechanics (Heisenberg), 56–57, 58, 72, 75–78; number i and, 72–76
Maupertuis, Pierre-Louis, 62
Maxwell, James Clerk, 1, 33–36, 49, 50, 109, 206, 213; education of, 34–35; and Einstein’s theory of special relativity, 47, 101–2, 110–11, 112; and electromagnetic theory, 34, 36, 39, 42–48, 56, 61, 63, 84, 92, 101, 110–12, 115, 172, 174, 175, 210; and Faraday, 42–43, 45; and force field theory, 42–46, 80, 172, 174, 199; and Lorentz’s theories, 112–13, 115, 116; and Newton’s theories, 33, 43, 47; public outreach by, 251–52; and quantum theory, 46, 48, 61, 92, 101–2; and speed/nature of light, 45–46, 47, 101, 111, 112; Yang–Mills theory and, 172, 174
McLuhan, Marshall, 225–27, 230; Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man, 225
Merchant Venturers’ Technical College (Bristol), 182
microscopes, 20, 235. See also Large Hadron Collider
microwaves, 47, 105–6, 111, 119; and background radiation, 127–33, 214, 151–52. See also radiation, cosmic microwave
Milky Way, 29, 122
Mills, Robert, 172; and Yang–Mills theory, 172, 174
Minkowski, Hermann, 94, 178
MinutePhysics (YouTube channel), 252
momentum, 177–78; conserved quantities and, 177–78, 179; of electron, 71, 72, 77