Running Science
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11. Wenger, H.A. et al. Endurance training: The effects of intensity, total work, duration, and initial fitness. Journal of Sports Medicine, Vol. 15, pp. 199-211, 1975.
12. Fournier, M. et al. Skeletal muscle adaptation in adolescent boys: Sprint and endurance training and detraining. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, Vol. 14, pp. 453-456, 1982.
13. Barton-Davis, E. et al. Viral mediated expression of insulin-like growth factor I blocks the aging-related loss of skeletal muscle function. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, Vol. 95 (26), pp. 15603-15607, Dec. 22, 1998.
14. Lee, S. et al. Viral expression of insulin-like growth factor-I enhances muscle hypertrophy in resistance-trained rats. Journal of Applied Physiology, Vol. 96 (3), pp. 1097-1104, Mar. 2004.
15. de la Chapelle, A. et al. Truncated erythropoietin receptor causes dominantly inherited benign human erythrocytosis. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, Vol. 90 (10), pp. 4495-4499, 1993.
16. Yang, N. et al. ACTN3 genotype is associated with human elite athletic performance. American Journal of Human Genetics, Vol. 73 (3), pp. 627-631, 2003.
17. Sweeney, H.L. Gene doping. Scientific American, pp. 63-69, July 2004.
18. Gao, G. Erythropoietin gene therapy leads to autoimmune anemia in macaques. Blood, Vol. 103 (May 1), pp. 3300-3302, 2004.
19.Brownlee, C. Gene doping: Will athletes go for the ultimate high? Science News Online, Vol. 166 (18), Oct. 30, 2004.
20. Barré, L. et al. A genetic model for the chronic activation of skeletal muscle AMP-activated protein kinase leads to glycogen accumulation. American Journal of Physiology, Endocrinology, & Metabolism, Vol. 292 (3), pp. E802-11, Mar. 2007.
21. Dartmouth researchers identify a gene that enhances muscle performance. 2006. Dartmouth News Release, www.dartmouth.edu/~news/releases/2006/11/14.html.
22. Ash, G.I. et al. No association between ACE gene variation and endurance athlete status in Ethiopians. Sci Sports Exerc. Vol. 43(4), pp. 590-597, 2011.
Chapter 3 Genetic Differences Between Elite and Nonelite Runners
1. Ruiz, J.R. et al. Is there an optimum endurance polygenic profile? Journal of Physiology, Vol. 587 (Part 7), pp. 1527-1534, 2009.
2. Cieszczyk, P. The angiotensin converting enzyme gene I/D polymorphism in polish rowers. International Journal of Sports Medicine, Vol. 30 (8), pp. 624-627, 2009.
3. Niemi, A.K. et al. Mitochondrial DNA and ACTN3 genotypes in Finnish elite endurance and sprint athletes. European Journal of Human Genetics, Vol. 13, pp. 965-969, 2005.
4. Papadimitriou, I.D. The ACTN3 gene in elite Greek track and field athletes. International Journal of Sports Medicine, Vol. 29, pp. 352-355, 2008.
5. Lucia, A. et al. ACTN3 genotype in professional endurance cyclists. International Journal of Sports Medicine, Vol. 27 (11), pp. 880-884, 2006.
6. Ruiz, J.R., et al. GNB3 C825T polymorphism and elite athletic status: A replication study with two ethnic groups. International Journal of Sports Medicine, Vol. 32 (2), pp. 151-3, Feb. 2011.
7. Ash, G.I. et al. No association between ACE gene variation and endurance athlete status in Ethiopians. Medicine in Science and Sports & Exercise, Vol. 43 (4), pp. 590-7, Apr. 2011.
8. How to Become an Olympic Athlete—Hint: Choose Your Parents Wisely! 2008. www.sportsscientists.com/search?q=genetics+of+running.
9. Onywera, V.O. et al. Demographic characteristics of elite Kenyan endurance runners. Journal of Sports Sciences, Vol. 24 (4), pp. 415-422, 2006.
10. Scott, R.A. et al. Demographic characteristics of elite Ethiopian endurance runners. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, Vol. 35 (10), pp. 1727-1732, 2003.
11. Scott, R.A. et al. Genotypes and distance running: Clues from Africa. Sports Medicine, Vol. 37, pp. 424-427, 2007.
12. Saltin, B. et al. Aerobic exercise capacity at sea level and at altitude in Kenyan boys, junior, and senior runners compared with Scandinavian runners. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports, Vol. 5 (4), pp. 209-221, 1995.
13. Eynon, W. et al. Genes and elite athletes: a road map for future research. Journal of Physiology, Vol. (589), pp. 3063-3070, 2011.
14. Michael Phelps Bio. http://www.2008.nbcolympics.com/athletes/athlete=2/bio/index.html.
15. Woods, D.R. et al. Endurance enhancement related to the human angiotensin I-converting enzyme I-D polymorphism is not due to differences in the cardiorespiratory response to training. European Journal of Applied Physiology, Vol. 86 (3), pp. 240-244, 2002.
16. Gayagay, G. et al. Elite endurance athletes and the ACE I allele: The role of genes in athletic performance. Human Genetics, Vol. 103, pp. 48-50, 1998.
17. Montgomery, H.E. et al. Human gene for physical performance. Nature, Vol. 393, pp. 221-222, 1998.
18. Myerson, S. et al. Human angiotensin I-converting enzyme gene and endurance performance. Journal of Applied Physiology, Vol. 87 (4), pp. 1313-1316, 1999.
19. Alvarez, R. et al. Genetic variation in the renin-angiotensin system and athletic performance. European Journal of Applied Physiology, Vol. 82 (1-2), pp. 117-120, 2000.
20. Rankinen, T. et al. Angiotensin-converting enzyme ID polymorphism and fitness phenotype in the HERITAGE Family Study. Journal of Applied Physiology, Vol. 88, pp. 1029-1035, 2000.
21. Nazarov, I.B. et al. The angiotensin converting enzyme I/D polymorphism in russian athletes. European Journal of Human Genetics, Vol. 9 (10), pp. 797-801, 2001.
22. Cam, S. et al. ACE I/D gene polymorphism and aerobic endurance development in response to training in a non-elite female cohort. Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness, Vol. 47 (2), pp. 234-8, June 2007.
23. Woods, D. et al. Elite swimmers and the D allele of the ACE I/D polymorphism. Human Genetics, Vol. 108, pp. 230-232, 2001.
24. Scott, R.A. et al. No association between angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) gene variation and endurance athlete status in Kenyans. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A Molecular and Integrative Physiology, Vol. 141 (2), pp. 169-175, 2005.
25. Rankinen, T. et al. No association between angiotensin-converting enzyme ID polymorphism and elite endurance athlete status. Journal of Applied Physiology, Vol. 88 (5), pp. 1571-1575, 2000.
26. Scott, R.A. et al. Mitochondrial DNA lineages of elite Ethiopian athletes. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part B Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Vol. 140 (3), pp. 497-503, 2005
27. Colin, N.M et al. Y Chromosome haplogroups of elite Ethiopian endurance runners. Human Genetics, Vol. 115 (6), pp. 492-497, 2004.
Chapter 4 The Body While Running
1. Williams, K.R. Biomechanics of distance running. In Current issues in biomechanics, Mark D. Grabiner, ed. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 1993, p. 4.
2. Cavanagh, P.R. Biomechanics of distance running. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 1990.
3. Powers, S.K. and Howley, E.T. Exercise physiology: Theory and application to fitness and performance. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2001, p.146.
4. Nicol, C. et al. The stretch-shortening cycle: A model to study naturally occurring neuromuscular fatigue. Sports Medicine, Vol. 36 (11), pp. 977-999, 2006.
5. Behm, D.G. and Sale, D.G. Velocity specificity of resistance training. Sports Medicine, Vol. 15 (6), pp. 374-388, 1993.
6. Martin, D.E. and Coe, S. Developing total fitness: Strength, flexibility, and health. In Better training for distance runners. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 1997, p. 293.
7. Jones, M. Technique of lifting. In Strength training. Birmingham: British Amateur Athletic Board, 1990, p.56.
Chapter 5 Refinement in Running Form
1. Messier, S. and Cirillo, K. Effects of a verbal and visual feedback system on running technique, perceived exertion, and running economy in female novice runners. Journal of Sport Sciences, Vol. 7, pp. 113-126, 1989.
2. Anderson, O. Running economy remains elusive to even the most earnest experts
. Running Research News, Vol. 5 (5), pp. 1, 3-5, Sept.-Oct. 1989.
3. Heinert, L.D. et al. Effect of stride length variation on oxygen uptake during level and positive grade treadmill running. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport (RQES), Vol. 59 (2), pp. 127-130, 1988.
4. Cavanagh, P.R. and Williams K.R. The effect of stride length variation on oxygen uptake during distance running. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, Vol. 14, pp. 30-35, 1982.
5. Morgan, D.W. and Martin, P.E. Effects of stride length alteration on racewalking economy. Canadian Journal of Applied Sport Science, Vol. 11 (4), pp. 211-217, 1986.
6. Anderson, O. Be a better runner without higher fitness—with the right form. Running Research News, Vol. 13 (1), pp. 1, 6-8, 1997.
7. Nancy Hamilton, interview with author, Jan.1997.
8. McMahon, T.A. et al. Groucho running. Journal of Applied Physiology, Vol. 62, pp. 2326-2337, 1987.
9. Williams, K.R and Cavanagh, P.R., Relationship between distance running mechanics, running economy, and performance. Journal of Applied Physiology, Vol. 63 (3), pp. 1236-1245, 1987.
10. Williams, K.R. and Cavanagh, P.R. Biomechanical correlates with running economy in elite distance runners. Proceedings of the North American Congress on Biomechanics, pp. 287-288, 1986.
11. Andersen, T. et al. Running economy, anthropometric dimensions, and kinematic variables. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, Vol. 26 (5), p. S170, 1994.
12. Anderson, O. Form II: What you have to do. Running Research News, Vol. 13 (5), pp. 6-8, June-July 1997.
13. Hasegawa, H. et al. Foot strike patterns of runners at the 15-km point during an elite-level half marathon. Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, Vol. 21 (3), pp. 888-893, 2007.
14. Paavolainen, L. et al. Explosive-strength training improves 5-km running time by improving running economy and muscle power. Journal of Applied Physiology, Vol. 86 (5), pp. 1527-1533, 1999.
15. Walt Reynolds, CSCS, interview with author, Aug. 16, 2011.
16. Anderson, O. Making headway on improving economy: Can freeloading African women help? Running Research News, Vol. 17 (5), pp. 1-5, June-July 2001.
17. Arendse, R.E. et al. Reduced eccentric loading of the knee with the pose running method. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, Vol. 36 (2), pp. 272-277, 2004.
18. Dallam, G. et al. Effect of a global alteration of running technique on kinematics and economy. Journal of Sports Sciences, Vol. 23 (7), pp. 757-764, 2005.
Chapter 6 Running Surfaces, Shoes, and Orthotics
1. Williams, K.R. Biomechanics of distance running. In Current issues in biomechanics, Mark D. Grabiner, ed. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 1993, p. 23.
2. Anderson, O. Impact forces—and the heavy impacts of the myths they create. Running Research News, Vol. 17 (3), pp. 1, 5-9, April 2001.
3. Radin, E.L et al. Effect of prolonged walking on concrete on the knees of sheep. Journal of Biomechanics, Vol. 15 (7), pp. 487-492, 1982.
4. Feehery, R.V. Jr. The biomechanics of running on different surfaces. Clinics in Podiatric Medicine and Surgery, Vol. 3 (4), pp. 649-659, 1986.
5. Ferris, D.P. et al. Running in the real world: Adjusting leg stiffness for different surfaces. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B Biological Science, Vol. 265 (1400), pp. 989-994, 1998.
6. Ferris, D.P. and Farley, C. Interaction of leg stiffness and surface stiffness during human hopping. Journal of Applied Physiology, Vol. 82 (1), pp. 15-22, 1997.
7. Ferris, D.P. et al. Runners adjust leg stiffness for their first step on a new running surface. Journal of Biomechanics, Vol. 32 (8), pp. 787-794, 1999.
8. The influence of surface characteristics on the impulse characteristics of drop landings. Proceedings of the 15th Annual Meeting of the American Society of Biomechanics, Aug. 23-25, Burlington, VT, pp. 92-93, 1989.
9. Robbins, S.E. and Gouw, G.J. Athletic footwear: Unsafe due to perceptual illusions. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, Vol. 23 (2), pp. 217-224, 1991.
10. Clarke, T.E. et al. Biomechanical measurement of running shoe cushioning properties. In Biomechanical aspects of sport shoes and playing surfaces, B.M. Nigg and B.A. Kerr, eds. Calgary: University of Calgary, pp. 25-33, 1983.
11. Nigg, B.M. and Bahlsen, A. Influence of heel flare and mid-sole construction on pronation, supination, and impact forces for heel-toe running. International Journal of Sport Biomechanics, Vol. 4, pp. 205-219, 1988.
12. Nigg, B.M. et al. The influence of running velocity and midsole hardness on external impact forces in heel-toe running. Journal of Biomechanics, Vol. 20, pp. 951-959, 1987.
13. Fredericson, M. and Misra, A.K. Epidemiology and aetiology of marathon running injuries, Sports Medicine, Vol. 37 (4-5), pp. 437-439, 2007.
14. Relationship between running injuries and running shoes. In The shoe in sport. W. Pforringer and B. Segesser, eds. Chicago: Year Book Medical, 1989, pp. 256-265.
15. Klinghan, R.T. et al. Do you get value for money when you buy an expensive pair of running shoes? British Journal of Sports Medicine, Vol. 42 (2), pp. 189-193, 2007.
16. Anderson, O. Should running shoes be changed? Marti, Nigg, and Ellis provide clues. Running Research News, Vol. 8 (1), pp. 1-5, Jan.-Feb.1992.
17. Robbins, S. and Waked, E. Hazard of deceptive advertising of athletic footwear. British Journal of Sports Medicine, Vol. 31, pp. 299-303, 1997.
18. Hamill, J. and Bates, B.T. A kinetic evaluation of the effects of in vivo loading on running shoes. Journal of Orthopaedic and Sports Physical Therapy, Vol. 10 (2), pp. 47-53, 1988.
19. Robbins, S.E. and Gouw, G.J. Athletic footwear: Unsafe due to perceptual illusions. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, Vol. 23 (2), pp. 217-224, 1991.
20. Robbins, S. et al. Athletic footwear affects balance in men. British Journal of Sports Medicine, Vol. 28 (2), pp. 117-123, 1994.
21. Cook, S.D. et al. Running shoes: Their relationship to running injuries. Sports Medicine, Vol. 10 (1), pp. 1-8, 1990.
22. Cheung, R. et al. Association of footwear with patellofemoral pain syndrome in runners. Sports Medicine, Vol. 36 (3), pp. 199-205, 2006.
23. MacDougall, C. Born to run. New York: Knopf, 2009.
24. Lieberman, D. et al. Foot strike patterns and collision forces in habitually barefoot versus shod runners. Nature, Vol. 463, pp. 531-535, Jan. 28, 2010.
25. Barefoot running—New evidence, same debate. Jan. 29, 2010. www.sportsscientists.com/2010/01/running-barefoot-vs-shoes.html.
26. Donatelli, R.A. et al. Biomechanical foot orthotics: A retrospective study. Journal of Orthopaedic & Sports Physical Therapy, Vol. 10 (6), pp. 205-212, 1988.
27. Sperryn, P.N. and Restan, L. Podiatry and the sports physician: An evaluation of orthoses. British Journal of Sports Medicine, Vol. 7, pp. 129-134, 1983.
28. Razeghi M. and Batt, M.E. Biomechanical analysis of the effect of orthotic shoe inserts. Sports Medicine, Vol. 29 (6), pp. 425-438, 2000.
29. D’Ambrosia, R.D. Orthotic devices in running injuries. Clinics in Sports Medicine, Vol. 4, pp. 611-618, 1985.
30. Brody, D.M. Techniques in the evaluation and treatment of the injured runner. Orthopedic Clinics of North America, Vol. 13, pp. 541-558, 1982.
31. Gross, M.L. et al. Effectiveness of orthotic shoe inserts in the long-distance runner. American Journal of Sports Medicine, Vol. 19 (4), pp. 409-412, 1991.
32. Hamill, J. et al. Relationship between selected static and dynamic lower extremity measures. Clinical Biomechanics, Vol. 4, pp. 217-225, 1989.
33.Knutzen, K.M. and Price, A. Lower extremity static and dynamic relationship with rearfoot motion in gait. Journal of the American Podiatric Medical Association, Vol. 84 (4), pp. 171-180, 1994.
34. McPoil, T.G. and Hunt, G.C. Evaluation and management of foot and ankle disorders: Present problems and future directions. Journal of Orthopaedic & Sports Physical Therapy, Vol. 21 (6), pp. 381-388, 1995.
35. Aström, M. and Arvidson, T. Alignment and joint motion in the normal foot.
Journal of Orthopaedic & Sports Physical Therapy, Vol. 22 (5), pp. 216-222, 1995
36. Stacoff, A. et al. Effects of foot orthoses on skeletal motion during running. Clinical Biomechanics, Vol. 15 (1), pp. 54-64, 2000.
37. Donoghue O.A, Orthotic control of rear foot and lower limb motion during running in participants with chronic Achilles tendon injury. Sports Biomechanics, Vol. 7 (2), pp. 194-205, 2008.
Chapter 7 Maximal Aerobic Capacity (O2max)
1. Hill, A.V. and Lupton, H. Muscular exercise, lactic acid, and the supply and utilization of oxygen. Quarterly Medical Journal, Vol. 16, pp. 135-171, 1923.
2. Saltin, B. and Åstrand, P. Maximal oxygen uptake in athletes. Journal of Applied Physiology, Vol. 23, pp. 353-358, 1967.
3. Åstrand, P. et al. Textbook of work physiology. 3rd ed. New York: McGraw Hill, 1986.
4. Howley, E. et al. Health fitness instructor’s handbook. 3rd ed. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 1997.
5. Noakes, T. Physiological capacity of the elite runner. In Running & science—in an interdisciplinary perspective, J. Bangsbo and H. Larsen, eds. Copenhagen: Munksgaard, 2000.
6. Pollock, M.L. Submaximal and maximal working capacity of elite distance runners, part 1: Cardio-respiratory aspects. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, Vol. 301, pp. 310-321, 1977.
7. Dempsey, J. et al. Limitations to exercise capacity and endurance: Pulmonary system. Canadian Journal of Applied Sport Science, Vol. 7, pp. 4-13, 1982.
8. Noakes, T. High VO2max with no history of training is due to high blood volume: An alternative explanation. British Journal of Sports Medicine, Vol. 39, p. 578, 2005.
9. St. Clair Gibson, A. and Noakes, T. Evidence for complex system integration and dynamic neural regulation of skeletal muscle recruitment during exercise in humans. British Journal of Sports Medicine, Vol. 38, pp. 797-806, 2004.
10. Noakes, T. and St. Claire Gibson, A. Logical limitations to the “catastrophe” models of fatigue during exercise in humans. British Journal of Sports Medicine, Vol. 38, pp. 648-649, 2004.