The Mahabharata

by Bibek Debroy

  ‘Bhishma replied, “Both kinds of dharma lead to great fortune and both are extremely difficult to follow. O son! Both lead to great fruits and both are followed by the virtuous. I will tell you about the proofs that have been cited for both. O Partha! Listen single-mindedly, so that your doubts about dharma can be severed. O Yudhishthira! In this connection, the ancient history of a conversation between Kapila and a cow is recounted. Listen to it. We have heard that when Tvashtri544 came to visit Nahusha in earlier times, he saw that he545 was following the certain and ancient practice of the sacred texts and was about to kill a cow. Kapila was cheerful in spirit and was engaged in the pledges of truth. He was learned and restrained in diet. He possessed the supreme intelligence of faith. When he saw this, he said, ‘I remember the truth of the Vedas, which have become lax now.’ At that time, a rishi and mendicant named Syumarashmi penetrated the cow’s body and said, ‘What is this? If it is the view that the Vedas constitute dharma, how can there be a different kind of view?546 Patient ascetics use the knowledge of the sacred texts to obtain insight. All of them know about the atman and are regarded as rishis. They are devoid of thirst and without anxiety. They desire nothing. All of them have no resolutions. This is what the Vedas have proclaimed.’

  ‘“Kapila replied, ‘I am not censuring the Vedas, or saying anything against them. We have heard that for the same objective different kinds of duties have been laid down for different ashramas. The renouncer547 goes there. The one who is in vanaprastha goes there. The ones who are in garhasthya or brahmacharya also go there. It has been the eternal view that all the four modes represent paths followed by the gods. Their superiority and inferiority, strength and weakness, have been spoken about in terms of the fruits obtained. Knowing this, the Vedas have advocated tasks to accomplish all the objectives. But elsewhere, we have faithfully heard the sacred texts to state that there need be no tasks at all. There seem to be taints with beginning tasks. But there also seem to be great taints with not beginning tasks. This being the state of the sacred texts, it is difficult to comprehend strengths and weaknesses. With the exception of these sacred texts, if you see any view that holds something to be superior to non-violence, tell me about it. What do you see?’

  ‘“Syumarashmi said, ‘We have always heard the sacred texts say that sacrifices must be performed for the sake of heaven. One first thinks of the fruits and then embarks on a sacrifice. The sacred texts have said that goats, horses, sheep, cows, different kinds of birds, wild and domesticated, and herbs are meant for sustaining life.548 Every day, food must be eaten in the morning and in the evening. The sacred texts have said that animals and grain are the limbs of a sacrifice. Prajapati created them and sacrifices together. The lord Prajapati made the gods and others perform sacrifices with their help. All animals have been divided into seven categories each and a succeeding one is inferior to a preceding one.549 The entire universe has been spoken of as a supreme sacrificial altar. From earlier times, this is what has progressively been followed. According to his strength, which learned man doesn’t choose a living form for a sacrifice? Animals, humans, trees and herbs also desire to go to heaven and with the exception of sacrifices, there is no means of reaching heaven. Oblations like herbs, animals, trees, creepers, clarified butter, milk, curds, the earth,550 the directions, faith and the time—these are the twelve components.551 When the hymns of the Rig, Yajur and Sama Veda and the person performing the sacrifice are added, there is a total of sixteen. The fire that burns in the household is said to be the seventeenth. These are said to be the limbs of a sacrifice and the foundations of the sacrifice. Clarified butter, milk, curds mixed with sugar, skin, hair,552 horns and hooves—a cow can provide everything for a sacrifice. Each of these is a recommended object. With officiating priests and dakshina, they can sustain sacrifices. People collect all of these and perform sacrifices. It has been heard in the sacred texts that they553 have been created for sacrifices. Since ancient times, this is how men have progressively conducted themselves. However, there are some who do not wish to cause any injury or lead to any violence. They perform sacrifices because of conviction and not because they desire the fruits of sacrifices. There is no doubt that what have been stated constitute the limbs of a sacrifice. Following the ordinances, they must be appropriately used and support each other. I see the sacred texts of the rishis and the Vedas are established in them. Those learned ones see the instructions that have been laid down by the Brahmanas.554 Sacrifices have been created by the Brahmanas and they are based on the Brahmanas. The entire universe is based on sacrifices and sacrifices are based on the universe. The learned say that if a person has sacrificed to the best of his capacity and has uttered the words “Om”, the womb of the brahman, “Namah”, “Svaha”, “Svadha” and “Vashat”, he has nothing to fear in the three worlds and in the world hereafter. The Vedas, the Siddhas and the supreme rishis say this. A person in whom all the hymns of the Rig, the Yajur and the Sama are vested, invoked in the proper way, is truly a brahmana. O brahmana! You know the results of an agnihotra and soma sacrifice. O illustrious one! You also know the consequences of the other great sacrifices. O brahmana! Therefore, you should not think at all about sacrifices or about officiating at them. Sacrifices performed properly lead to heaven and after death, lead to great fruits in heaven. It is certain that those who do not perform sacrifices do not obtain any worlds here, or in the hereafter. Those who know about the words of the Vedas know that there are proofs about both.’”’555

  Chapter 1589(261)

  ‘“Kapila said, ‘Ascetics see these are the outcomes and there is nothing in the three worlds that can obstruct them.556 Those learned ones are without opposite sentiments. They do not bow down. They are not bound down by any hopes. They are free from all kinds of sins. They roam around, pure and unblemished. They are firm in their resolution that renunciation represents emancipation. They base themselves in the brahman. They are full of the brahman. They have made the brahman their abode. They are devoid of sorrow and have destroyed rajas. They obtain the eternal worlds. They obtain the supreme objective. Why do they need garhasthya?’557

  ‘“Syumarashmi said, ‘Even for those with supreme faith, even for those who seek the supreme objective, there is no option but to resort to garhasthya. All other ashramas depend on it. All living beings sustain themselves by depending on their mothers. In that way, all the other ashramas are possible because they are based on garhasthya. The householder performs sacrifices. The householder observes austerities. Any dharma that one wishes to pursue has garhasthya as its foundation. O sage! Everything that has life is engaged in procreation. It is not possible to generate offspring in any other mode. O brahmana! All grass and grain, in plains and mountains, depend on this mode. And life is sustained on those grass and grain. Therefore, how can any eloquent person say that there can be emancipation without the householder stage? Those who are without faith, those who are without wisdom, those who are devoid of subtle insight, those who are without hope, those who are lazy and exhausted and those who are tormented because of their own deeds—even though they may be regarded as learned—these are the only ones who regard renunciation as the supreme ashrama. The firm and eternal injunctions are for the sake of the three worlds. That is the reason an illustrious brahmana is worshipped from the time of his birth.558 Even before the ceremony of conception has been performed, mantras exist in brahmanas and enable them to perform, without any uncertainty, direct and indirect acts. In cremations, renewed attachment,559 using vessels for food, donating cattle and other animals and immersing funeral cakes in water, these560 become necessary. There are three kinds of ancestors—archishmats, barhishads and kravyads.561 After death, they grant permission for mantras to be chanted. Mantras are thus the reason.562 When this has been pronounced in the Vedas, how can mortals obtain emancipation without repaying their debts to ancestors, gods and brahmanas? There are indeed the speculations of some learned people. But they are lazy and devoid of prosperity. They
may say that they know about the words of the Vedas. But they speak lies in the guise of truth.563 If a brahmana performs sacrifices in accordance with the sacred texts of the Vedas, he is never afflicted by sin. With his sacrifices, the animals that have been killed and his dharma, he ascends upwards. He satisfies his desires and satisfies them.564 A man cannot obtain greatness by ignoring the Vedas, deceit or illusion. The brahman is obtained through the practices of brahmanas.’

  ‘“Kapila said, ‘There are darsha, pournamasa, agnihotra and chaturmasya.565 These are eternal sacrifices for intelligent people. There are those who no longer have any resolutions and are extremely firm in their fortitude. They are pure and have sought refuge in the brahman. They desire immortality and through the brahman, can satisfy the gods and the ancestors. They see their own selves in all beings and all beings in their own selves.566 The gods are themselves confused when they try to follow in their footsteps. The being inside has four gates and four faces. Therefore, censure can also come from four directions. The gatekeeper has those four gates of the two arms, the organ of speech, the stomach and the genital organ.567 One should not gamble with dice and take the riches that belong to others. One should not accept cooked food from those who have not been born in a womb.568 An intelligent person will not come under the influence of anger and strike others with hands and feet, thus protecting these well. He will not loudly indulge in verbal abuse, nor will he indulge in slander and rumour. He will be devoted to the truth and restrained in speech. He will not be distracted. Thus, he will protect the gate that is the organ of speech extremely well. He will not refrain from food. But nor will he eat a lot. He will not be greedy and solicit the companionship of the virtuous. He will eat just enough to sustain the progress of life. Thus will he protect the gate that is the stomach. When there is a brave wife, he will not have intercourse with another woman. Nor will he summon a woman when it is not her season. He will devote himself to the vow of serving his wife. The gate of the genital organ will be protected in this way. The learned brahmanas protect all the gates of the genital organs, the stomach, the arms and the organ of speech, as the fourth, extremely well. If all these gates are not guarded, there will be failure. What will such a person obtain through austerities? What will be accomplished through sacrifices or his atman? If a person casts aside his upper garment, if he sleeps on the bare ground, using his arm as a pillow and if he is tranquil, the gods know such a person to be a brahmana. Such a sage finds pleasure alone and is comfortable with all the opposite sentiments. He does not think about others. The gods know such a person to be a brahmana. He knows everything about nature and its transformations. He knows about the objectives of all beings. The gods know such a person to be a brahmana. He grants fearlessness to all beings and is engaged in being free of fear from everyone. He sees himself inside all beings. The gods know such a person to be a brahmana.569 He is not concerned with the Vedas and the fruits of rites. However, following the sanctions of all these, he takes delight in the absence of fruits. But it is certain that his tasks bring the rewards of fruits. They are seen to be without qualities and are obtained alone and in private. Those qualities are extremely difficult to comprehend and extremely difficult to obtain. But the fruits of rites come to an end. That is what you should see.’

  ‘“Syumarashmi said, ‘The Vedas provide support for both renunciation and fruits.570 Both those paths are evident. O illustrious one! Tell me about this.’

  ‘“Kapila replied, ‘You should see it as evident that you should resort to the path of the virtuous. What is evident about the one that you wish to follow?’571

  ‘“Syumarashmi replied, ‘I am Syumarashmi. I have come here to ask you about the brahman. I desire what is beneficial for me. That is the reason, in an upright way, I started this conversation. My intention wasn’t a debate. O illustrious one! It is just that I have this terrible doubt. Explain it to me. You have said that, for those who resort to virtuous paths, the benefits can directly be seen. For the path that you follow, what can be directly seen? There are sacred texts about argumentation and there are the other sacred texts. Avoiding the sacred texts about argumentation, I have studied the other sacred texts, which bring success. Those sacred texts are the words of the Vedas. It can be seen that those sacred texts have determined that the signs of success are directly manifest. This is like a boat that has been tethered, so that it cannot be borne along by the tide. O brahmana! How can we be dragged away? If we possess wicked intelligence, how can we cross it?572 O illustrious one! Tell me about this. I have resorted to you. Instruct me. There is no one who has completely renounced, is completely content, is completely without sorrow and disease, and is completely free from desire, resolution and action. You indulge in joy and misery, just as we do. You are no different from all the other animals in serving the objects of the senses. Conduct has accordingly been laid down for the four varnas and ashramas and they follow this. How does one determine what brings happiness?’

  ‘“Kapila replied, ‘If one acts according to the sacred texts and follows all the injunctions and rites, there will always be happiness. For a person who pursues knowledge, knowledge saves from everything. Any conduct that deviates from knowledge destroys subjects. That is the reason learned people are always happy in every way. Sometimes, one obtains the sense of complete unity.573 Without understanding the truth about the sacred texts, some weak people come under the subjugation of desire and anger and are overwhelmed by arrogance. They do not know the truth about the sacred texts. They are like bandits who rob the sacred texts. Their intelligence has not ripened and they are inauspicious. They do not seek to attain the brahman. They see the lack of qualities. Their bodies are based on the qualities of tamas and they are devoted to tamas. Any being follows the inherent traits of his natural characteristics. Because of the qualities that are always generated by their nature, they are overcome by hatred, desire, wrath, insolence, falsehood and arrogance. However, there are those who use their intelligence and abandon both the good and the bad. They desire the supreme objective and endeavour to remain engaged in self-restraint.’

  ‘“Syumarashmi said, ‘O brahmana! Everything that I have said has been recounted in the sacred texts. If one does not understand the true purport of the sacred texts, one engages in rites. It has been heard that learning is that which is in conformity with the sacred texts. It has also been determined that not following the rites is against the sacred texts. The words of the Vedas represent the learning of the sacred texts. However, it is seen that many insolent people act against the sacred texts. For both this world and for the next, they see faults in the sacred texts. Ignorance destroys their wisdom and with wisdom in decay, they become enveloped in tamas. A person who resorts to this and roams around in every direction, basing himself on the words of the Vedas, is alone capable of being emancipated and being successful in every possible way. He is said to be liberated. This is an extremely difficult task for someone who lives in a household. Even if he indulges in donations, studying, sacrifices, generating offspring and uprightness, he is not capable of being freed. Shame on the doer and the tasks and on the futile exertions. However, if one turns one’s back on the rites of the Vedas, one becomes a non-believer. O illustrious one! This is what I quickly wish to hear about. O brahmana! Tell me about this. I have sought refuge with you. Instruct me. I wish to learn everything that is known to you about emancipation.’”’

  Chapter 1590(262)

  ‘“Kapila said, ‘People regard the Vedas as proof and one should not turn one’s back on the rites in the Vedas. Know that there are two brahmans, Shabda-Brahma and Para-Brahma. Having attained Shabda-Brahma, one can then proceed towards Para-Brahma. Having created the body, he follows the Vedas and creates the body.574 When the body has thus been purified, that vessel becomes a brahmana. After this, other tasks must be undertaken and I will tell you about them. Only the person can directly know whether there has been detachment in the mind. Other people cannot bear witness to this fact. Dh
arma is followed by those who sacrifice without any desires. They are those who renounce and are not greedy. They are devoid of sentiments of compassion or envy. Even when they are engaged in the path of riches, they use it for visting places of pilgrimage. They never indulge in wicked deeds and resort to the rites prescribed by birth. They are firm in their minds and resolutions. They have decided to pursue pure wisdom. They are not enraged. They do not suffer from malice. They have no sense of ego and do not indulge in jealousy. They faithfully pursue unsullied knowledge. They are engaged in the welfare of all beings. There were many such householders, following their own tasks. There were kings and brahmanas who practised the indicated rites. For a long time, they followed uprightness. They were content, firm in their pursuit of knowledge. Those faithful and pure people clearly followed dharma, both Para and the other kind.575 They first cleaned their souls and then acted in accordance with the vows. They acted according to that dharma, even when it was very difficult to follow and involved hardships. Earlier, they followed that dharma collectively and earned happiness. Since they had no doubts, they did not have to perform atonements. They truly depended on dharma. Their minds were such that they could not be dislodged. They did not transgress the norms and showed no deceit in the practice of dharma. Collectively, those initial ones followed such conduct and because of this, they had no need of atonements. The sacred texts say that atonements became necessary when the souls became weak. In earlier times, there were many brahmanas like this. They performed sacrifices. They possessed the wisdom of the three.576 They were pure, good in conduct and illustrious. Those learned ones continuously performed sacrifices, but without being tied down by the bonds of desire. Their sacrifices and rites from the Vedas were in conformity with the sacred texts, appropriate for the time, appropriate for their resolutions and appropriate for their vows. They had overcome desire and anger and were naturally firm in their souls. They were upright and always tranquil. They were engaged in their own tasks. In every way, they followed what we have come to know as the eternal sacred texts. They were cheerful in their spirits. They performed tasks that were extremely difficult to accomplish. They were engaged in their own tasks and performed terrible austerities. That ancient and eternal conduct was certainly extraordinary. They acted without any uncertainty in their intelligence, clear about the signs of dharma. They were safe in the practice of dharma. They were not distracted and not vanquished. All the varnas were engaged in this way and there was no exception to this. Those bulls among men followed that single dharma which has four quarters. Having followed it in the proper way, those virtuous ones went to the supreme objective. They left their houses and resorted to the forest. There were others who remained in their houses and became brahmacharis. Learned brahmanas know that dharma consists of four ashramas. Those who attain the brahman’s eternal abode are certainly brahmanas. There were thus many ancient brahmanas who followed dharma. Those brahmanas can be seen in the firmament, shining as stellar bodies. Some are nakshatras and many are large numbers of stars. Following the Vedas, they are content and have obtained the infinite. If they happen to be reborn in this cycle of life, since they are not tainted by wicked deeds, they rarely perform tasks that require births in wombs. Such people are brahmanas. How else can one be a brahmana? It is good and evil acts that enable the determination. We have learnt in the sacred texts that all of them obtain the infinite in this way and that their wisdom has been ripened. They have auspicious souls and only thirst for emancipation. The four kinds of dharma in the Upanishads is generally said to apply to everyone.577 Those brahmanas who control their souls are Siddhas and are always successful. They are said to base themselves on knowledge, with contentment as the foundation. They possess renunciation in their souls. This eternal search for the brahman has always been the dharma of mendicants. Sometimes others also pursue this, but only according to capacity. Whether one reaches that objective, or whether one only moves towards it because one is weak, the brahman is the auspicious object of desire and frees a person from the cycle of life.’