by Bibek Debroy
Chapter 1611(283)
‘“Parashara said, ‘Whatever little riches a brahmana obtains through receiving gifts, a kshatriya through conquest by weapons, a vaishya through lawful means and a shudra through servitude, are praised. When spent for dharma, these yield great fruits. It is said that the shudra must always serve the three varnas. But if a brahmana doesn’t have means of sustenance and follows the dharma of kshatriyas or the dharma of vaishyas, he suffers no downfall. But if a brahmana follows the dharma of shudras, then he does face a downfall. When a shudra does not possess a means of sustenance, then trade, animal husbandry and subsistence on the basis of artisanship are recommended for him. If a person has not engaged in such occupations earlier, then descending in an arena,727 earning a living through one’s beauty and earning a living through the sales of liquor, flesh, iron and leather are not recommended. These are censured in the world. It has been heard that if one has been engaged in such tasks and has then given them up, this leads to great dharma. In this world, it is said that if a successful man is overcome by arrogance in his mind and acts wickedly, that cannot be accepted. It has been heard in the ancient accounts that subjects used to be self-controlled and placed dharma at the forefront, following the fair policy of dharma. Shaming them through words was sufficient chastisement. O king! At that time, dharma alone was praised among men. Men on earth served and extended the qualities of dharma. O son! O lord of men! But the asuras could not tolerate this. They increased themselves and gradually penetrated the subjects. Because of this, insolence was generated among subjects and this destroyed dharma. Resulting from insolence, anger was again generated within them. Having been overcome with anger, their conduct became shameful. O king! When they were overcome with lack of modesty, confusion was generated in them. Having become overcome with confusion, they no longer looked at things the way they had done earlier. They cheerfuly conducted themselves and crushed each other. Shaming them through words was no longer sufficient chastisement then. They served their senses and no longer showed respect towards gods and brahmanas. At this time, the gods sought refuge with Shiva, supreme among the gods, the brave one with many forms and the lord of the ganas. With the combined energy of the gods, with a single arrow, he brought down the three cities from the sky onto the ground.728 Their lord was terrible and fearsome in valour, frightful to the gods. But he was slain by the wielder of the trident. When he was slain, men regained their own nature. As was the case earlier, the Vedas and the sacred texts were revived. The saptarshis instated Vasava in the kingdom of the gods in heaven and he was given the task of wielding the staff of chastisement over men. After the saptarshis, there were the king named Viprithu and several other kshatriyas who became kings over separate categories. However, even when they were born in great lineages, there were some who continued to follow the earlier conduct. Their hearts were full of sentiments like that of the asuras. Because of those sentiments, those kings, terrible in valour, continued to be attached to deeds that were like those of the asuras. Men who are exceedingly foolish continue to be devoted to such acts, rever them and establish them. O king! That is the reason I am telling you that you must reflect about the sacred texts. You must discard all notions of violence within you and act so as to obtain success. An accomplished person does not think of obtaining riches by mixing up the means. For the sake of dharma or artha, he does not abandon what is proper. That is not said to be the way towards welfare. It is recommended that a kshatriya should be self-controlled, affectionate towards relatives and protect subjects, servants and sons in accordance with his own dharma. Because of prosperity and adversity, there can be enmity and affection. One is born and circles around in thousands of lives in many ways. Find delight in the qualities and never in sins. Even if a person is evilminded and devoid of qualities, he realizes this internally. O great king! Dharma and adharma are prevalent among men. Other than men, these notions are not seen to exist in other creatures. Whether a man is concerned with this life or is not concerned with this life, he must be learned and must follow dharma in conduct. He must cause injury and must always regard everyone like his own self. When there is no longer any desire in the mind, there is no longer any falsehood and one desires what is beneficial.’”’
Chapter 1612(284)
‘“Parashara said, ‘O son! I have told you about the dharma that is recommended for householders. I will now tell you about the techniques for austerities. Listen attentively. O best among men! It is often seen that because of being overcome with tamas and rajas, householders suffer from attachment and have a sense of ownership. Since they resort to homes, men acquire cattle, fields, riches, wives, sons and servants. In their conduct, they are always seen to look towards these. Their attachment and aversion are always seen to increase. Overcome by attachment and aversion, a man comes under the control of material objects. O lord of men! When confusion has been generated, the object known as desire is generated. Seeking to obtain objects of pleasure, he becomes addicted to desire. He does not see anything beyond the gains from ordinary pleasure and desire. Having become overwhelmed by greed, attachment is increased in people. Men become interested in sustaining these objects. Even if he knows, a man performs acts that should not be undertaken, for the sake of objects. Because he is overcome with affection for the children, he is tormented at the prospect of these729 being destroyed. He is full of pride and seeks to protect himself against all defeat. He acts so as to enjoy pleasure and is thereby destroyed. It is known that those who have seen the brahman are full of intelligence and engage in austerities. Such men seek auspicious deeds and give up happiness.730 O king! They obtain indifference towards loss of affection and riches and physical and mental hardships. That indifference leads to knowledge of the atman and knowledge of what the sacred texts have said. O king! Having seen the purport of the sacred texts, they see the importance of austerities. O Indra among men! A man who realizes what is essential and what is damaging is extremely rare. Realizing that all beloved happiness decays, he resorts to austerities. O son! Austerities are everything. They are recommended even for those who are inferior. A person who has conquered his senses and is self-controlled is on the road to heaven. O king! Earlier, the lord Prajapati created subjects through austerities, sometimes resorting to different kinds of vows. O son! The Adityas, the Vasus, the Rudras, Agni, the Ashvins, the Maruts, the Vishvadevas, the Sadhyas, the ancestors, the large numbers of Maruts,731 the yakshas, the rakshasas, the gandharvas, the siddhas, the other residents of heaven and all other celestial ones obtained success through austerities. In the beginning, Brahma created brahmanas. Earlier, through their austerities, they prospered the earth and also roamed around in heaven. In the world of mortals, kings and other householders who are seen to have been born in great lineages have all obtained the fruits of their austerities.732 The silken garments, the radiant ornaments, the mounts, the seats and the vehicles—all these are the fruits of austerities. Thousands of beautiful women who follow them and the dwelling in palaces—all these are the fruits of austerities. The best of beds, many kinds of objects of pleasure and all that is—these are the outcomes of past deeds. O scorcher of enemies! There is nothing in the three worlds that cannot be obtained through austerities. The renunciation of objects of pleasure also represents the fruits of earlier deeds. Whether he is happy or miserable, a man must abandon greed. O supreme among kings! He must use his mind and intelligence to look towards the sacred texts. Discontent leads to misery. Greed leads to confusion of the senses. Wisdom is then destroyed and knowledge is not accompanied by practice. When wisdom is destroyed, one does not see what is proper. Therefore, even when happiness has been destroyed, a man must resort to fierce austerities. Whatever is beneficial represents happiness. Whatever is hated is said to represent misery. Behold. These are the fruits of austerities that have been performed and have not been performed. If one performs unblemished austerities, one goes to what is best. One always faces the fortunate and enjoys the objects of pleasure. Howeve
r, a person who gives up the virtuous path and goes after the fruits733 obtains the unpleasant and faces many kinds of misery, despite obtaining objects of pleasure. Dharma, austerities and donations are desirable. But because desire is generated, one performs wicked deeds and obtains hell. O supreme among men! But whether he faces joy or misery, if a man does not deviate from his own conduct, he possesses the sight of the sacred texts. O lord of the earth! It is said that the pleasure from touch, taste, sight, scent and hearing only lasts for as long as it takes for an arrow to fall down on the ground. When these are over, a fierce pain again takes over. That is the reason the learned praise emancipation, productive of supreme bliss. Those who follow that obtain fruits with superior qualities. For those who always have a conduct in accordance with dharma, kama and artha do not diminish them. Householders must never make efforts to serve objects of pleasure. But it is my view that they must always make efforts to follow their own dharma. Those who are revered and are born in noble families always have the sight of the sacred texts. However, those who have separated themselves from acts of dharma are incapable of controlling their atmans. All other deeds that are performed by men are destroyed. These should be ignored in this world and nothing other than deeds of austerities followed. However, there may be householders who have made up their minds to perform deeds. O king! They should skilfully observe their own dharma and offer havya and kavya. All the male and female rivers flow to the ocean and find their refuge there. In that way, all the other ashramas are based on that of the householder.’”’
Chapter 1613(285)
‘“Janaka asked, ‘O maharshi! How were the different complexions generated among the varnas? O supreme among eloquent ones! I wish to hear about this. Tell me. The sacred texts say that one’s offspring are nothing but one’s own self. In particular, having been generated from brahmanas, how has there been decay?’
‘“Parashara replied, ‘O great king! It is indeed that way. The offspring are generated from one’s own self. But because of the deviation from austerities, this decay into jatis has set in.734 When the field is good and the seed is good, an auspicious crop results. However, if these are inferior, an inferior crop results. Those who are learned about dharma know that when Prajapati created the worlds, some were created from his mouth, some from his arms, some from his thighs and some from his feet. O son! The brahmanas were born from the mouth and the kshatriyas and their relatives from the arms. O king! The rich ones735 were born from the thighs. The attendants736 were born from the feet. O bull among men! These were the only four varnas that were created. The sacred texts say that all the others that were created, over and above these, were the result of a mixture. Among those that resulted from the kshatriya jati were Atirathas, Ambashthas, Ugras, Vaidehakas, Shvapakas, Pulkasas, Stenas, Nishadas, Sutas and Magadhas. O lord of men! The Ayogas, Karanas, Vratyas and Chandalas were born from an intermingling between the four varnas.’
‘“Janaka asked, ‘How did brahmanas with different gotras737 result? O supreme among sages! There are many gotras in the world. How can those born from different wombs, those born from shudra wombs and those born from inferior wombs become sages?’
‘“Parashara replied, ‘O king! Though these are not brahmanas by virtue of their inferior birth, these great-souled ones can resort to austerities and cleanse their souls. O king! Here and there, the sages had sons. However, because of their738 own austerities, they again succeeded in becoming rishis. O king! O ruler of Videha! Earlier, my grandfather,739 Rishyashringa, Kashyapa, Vata, Tandya, Kripa, Kakshivat, Kamatha and the others, Yavakrita, Drona, supreme among eloquent ones, Ayu, Matanga, Datta, Drupada and Matsya obtained their own natural states by resorting to austerities. They were knowledgable about the Vedas and were established in self-control and austerities. O king! Initially, only four gotras were born—Angiras, Kashyapa, Vasishtha and Bhrigu. O king! But because of their deeds, other gotras were generated. Their names resulted from the austerities that those virtuous ones resorted to.’
‘“Janaka asked, ‘O illustrious one! Tell me about the specific dharma of different varnas. What is the general template of dharma that leads to welfare everywhere?’
‘“Parashara replied, ‘O king! Receiving gifts, officiating at sacrifices and studying represent the specific dharma for brahmanas. Kshatriyas are radiant when they protect. The vaishyas must engage in agriculture, animal husbandry and trade. O lord of men! The task of shudras is to serve the other three varnas.740 O king! I have described to you the specific dharma of the varnas. O son! Now listen to the details about general dharma. O king! Non-violence, lack of injury, lack of distraction, giving proper shares, performing funeral rites, attending to guests, truthfulness, lack of anger, contentment with one’s own wife, purity, constant lack of malice, knowledge of the atman and endurance—these represent general dharma. Brahmanas, kshatriyas and vaishyas are the three varnas that are dvijas.741 O supreme among bipeds! These are the ones who have rights to such dharma. O king! If these three varnas resort to perverse deeds, then that leads to their downfall. They are elevated if they stick to their own deeds, just as the righteous ones do. No downfall has been determined for a shudra, nor is there any means of his cleansing himself from such a downfall. He cannot follow the conduct of dharma laid down in the sacred texts. However, he should not act against such dharma. O ruler of Videha! O great king! Learned ones say that shudras are like brahmanas. O Indra among men! I see such a person as the god Vishnu, the foremost one in the universe.742 Even an inferior person can desire to uplift himself by resorting to the conduct of the virtuous. They are not censured if they perform any of the rites that lead to nourishment. But they must avoid mantras. Whenever inferior people resort to the conduct of the virtuous, they obtain happiness, both in this world and in the hereafter.’
‘“Janaka asked, ‘O great sage! What taints a person? Is it his deeds or his jati? A doubt has arisen in my mind. You should explain this to me.’
‘“Parashara replied, ‘O great king! There is no doubt that both can give rise to taints. But listen specifically to how both deeds and jati can be countered. Regardless of birth and deeds,743 a person may perform wicked acts. However, even if the birth is tainted, if a person does not act wickedly, he is truly a man. If a man of superior birth performs wicked deeds, he is censured. Those acts taint him. Therefore, such deeds are not appropriate.’
‘“Janaka asked, ‘O supreme among brahmanas! In this world, which are the acts of dharma? Which are the acts that never lead to injury to beings?’
‘“Parashara replied, ‘O great king! Listen to what you have asked me. These are acts of non-injury that always save a man. Those who renounce and worship the fire can see that their anxiety is dispelled. They are the ones who resort to the beneficial path of dharma and ascend progressively. They are devoted and humble. They are always self-controlled and restrained. They abandon all kinds of action and go to the spot that is without decay. O king! All the varnas should perform the deeds of dharma properly and speak truthful words. In the world of the living, they must give up terrible adharma. They will go to heaven. There is no need to reflect on this.’”’
Chapter 1614(286)
‘“Parashara said, ‘Fathers, friends, preceptors and women belonging to those who are devoid of qualities bring them no status in the world. O king! Even if one is devoted to them, speaks pleasantly to them, ensures their welfare and is obedient, that brings no gains. For men, the father is the supreme god. The father is said to be superior to the mother. Knowledge is said to be the supreme gain. By controlling the objects of the senses, one obtains the supreme. If the son of a king faces the flames of arrows in the field of battle and is consumed by them and killed, he goes to the immortal worlds that are extremely difficult to obtain. As he pleases, he obtains the fruits of heaven there. O king! One should not strike the exhausted, the terrified, those who have lost their weapons, the weeping, those who are not willing to fight, those who have been deprived of their mou
nts, those who are not exerting themselves, those who are ill, those who are seeking refuge, those who are very young and those who are aged. One should fight someone who is mounted, properly equipped, ready to fight and one’s equal. In a battle, a king should engage against the son of a kshatriya. It is certain that it is best to be killed by someone who is an equal or superior. Kings who are slain by inferiors and cowards are censured. O lord of men! It is said that if one is slain by a wicked person who resorts to evil conduct, or is inferior, that is wicked and certainly leads to hell. O king! If a person’s fortune is over and he has come under subjugation,744 then no one can save him. But if the lifespan is left, no one can assail him. If a person has attained one hundred years of age or he is senior in age, one must gently restrain him from performing any injurious acts. O son! When a householder suspects that his end is near, it is appropriate that his death should occur near a river or at a sacred place. When the lifespan is over, one merges into the five elements. This can happen without reason and can also occur with reason.745 Having obtained a body, if a person gives it up in a mishap, after losing the body, he follows the same kind of course.746 This is like a man going from one house to another house. There is no second reason for a person to obtain a similar kind of body. That is the way he pursues the goal of emancipation. The body consists of a mass of arteries, sinews and bones. It is terrible and impure. It is a mixture of the elements, the senses and the qualities. This body is then covered by a skin. Learned ones who have thought about adhyatma say this. When the qualities decay, the body becomes mortal. The body is abandoned and becomes immobile and senseless. The elements return to their natural states and the body merges with the ground. Driven by the urge to act, the body is born, here and there. O ruler of Videha! Whatever be the state in which the body dies, driven by the deeds it has performed, its next birth is seen to be determined by that nature. O king! But the atman in the creature is not born again immediately. Like a giant cloud, it roams around in the sky. O king! It is born again only after it has obtained a new receptacle. O king! The atman is superior to the mind. The mind is superior to the senses. O king! Of the two kinds of creations, the mobile are superior.747 It is held that bipeds are supreme among mobile ones. Among bipeds, dvijas are held to be superior. O Indra among kings! Among dvijas, the wise are held to be superior. Among the wise, those who know about the atman are superior and among those who know about the atman, the ones who are humble. It is certain that men who are born must die. Because of the qualities,748 subjects undertake tasks that also come to an end. O king! A man who dies when the sun is in its northern solstice749 and when the nakshatras and muhurtas are auspicious, is a person who performs auspicious deeds. A person must undertake tasks to the best of his capacity. He must cleanse himself of all wicked deeds and without causing hardship to people, face the natural course of death. Poison, hanging, burning, being slain by bandits and being bitten to death by animals are said to be inferior kinds of death. Those who are the performers of auspicious deeds do not confront these and many other inferior kinds of death. O king! The life forces of virtuous ones ascend upwards, those who are middling in merit remain towards the middle and the perpetrators of wicked deeds head downwards. O king! For any man, there is only one foe and no second enemy, and that happens to be ignorance. It is because he is enveloped by this that he is goaded to perform extremely terrible and loathsome deeds. For the sake of realization, one must serve the aged and follow the dharma of the sacred texts. O prince! One must make efforts for success. That enemy can only be brought down through the arrow of wisdom. One must study the Vedas, perform austerities and be a brahmachari. To the best of one’s capacity, one must perform the five sacrifices.750 With a desire to obtain dharma, a man must then go to the forest. He must control himself and seek to obtain what is best. However, he must not emaciate himself by giving up all material objects. O son! Birth as a human is extremely difficult to obtain, even as a chandala.751 O lord of the earth! This is the first kind of birth, because one can seek to save the atman by performing auspicious deeds. O lord! Who will destroy such a life once it has been obtained? Using the sacred texts as a yardstick, men perform acts of dharma. But though the status as a human may be very difficult to obtain in this world, there may be a man who ignores dharma. He is overcome by desire and thereby deceives himself. O son! A person who looks at all beings with eyes of affection is not destroyed, like the flames of a lamp that have been protected. He comforts everyone and speaks pleasantly to them. He is impartial towards delight and misery. He obtains greatness in the hereafter. Donations, renunciation, making the appearance pleasant and amiable, repeated purification of the body through bathing and austerities—these must be undertaken near the Sarasvati, in Naimisha, in Pushkara, or in other sacred spots on earth. For those who die in houses, it is recommended that their dead bodies should be taken out from there and taken to cremation grounds in vehicles. Cremation must be performed in accordance with the rites of purification. Rites, beneficial sacrifices, officiating at sacrifices, donations and efforts to undertake auspicious deeds according to one’s capacity—these have been recommended for the sake of the departed ancestors. A man also undertakes these for his own self. O lord of men! The sacred texts, the Vedas and the six Vedangas have been laid down for the benefit of men who perform unblemished deeds.’”