The Mahabharata

by Bibek Debroy

  ‘Bhishma replied, “O Yudhishthira! Brahmanas, kshatriyas and vaishyas—these are the three varnas that are born twice.1307 It is recommended dharma that a brahmana should marry these. O scorcher of enemies! Through error, greed and desire, a brahmana may marry a shudra, but this is not sanctioned in the sacred texts. If a brahmana lies down in a shudra’s bed, he will be afflicted. That is the reason rites of atonement have been laid down for situations like this. O Yudhishthira! If offspring results from this, the penance is doubled. O descendant of the Bharata lineage! I will now tell you about the rules for distributing riches. The son who is born through a brahmana mother will obtain the best auspicious bull and the best vehicle from his father’s riches as his share. O Yudhishthira! What is left of the brahmana’s property must then be divided into ten parts. From this, the son born through a brahmana mother will obtain four parts as his share of the father’s riches. There is no doubt that the son who is born through a kshatriya mother has the same status as a brahmana. However, because the mother is different, he deserves to be given three parts. Though the son born through the vaishya has been born from the third varna, the father was a brahmana. O Yudhishthira! He should be given two parts of the brahmana’s property. It has been said that the son born through a brahmana father and a shudra mother should never be given any riches. O descendant of the Bharata lineage! However, a little bit can be given to the son born through the shudra mother.1308 In this order, the riches are thus divided into ten parts. There may be several sons who have been born through the same varna and they will obtain an equal share in the portion recommended for them. The son who has been born through a shudra mother should not be regarded as a brahmana. Those born through the other three varnas, with a brahmana father, are regarded as brahmanas. It has been said that there are only four varnas and there is no fifth one. The son born through a shudra will obtain a tenth share in the father’s riches. But that share will be given to him if his father has given him the share. If his father has not given it, he will not get it. O descendant of the Bharata lineage! Subject to this, riches must certainly be given to the son of a shudra. Lack of cruelty is supreme dharma and that is the reason he must be given. Whenever there is compassion, it gives rise to good qualities. O descendant of the Bharata lineage! However, irrespective of whether one has sons or does not have sons,1309 under no circumstances should more than a tenth share be given to the son of a shudra wife. If a brahmana possesses more riches than are required to sustain him for three years, he should faithfully use these to perform sacrifices. Riches must not be acquired without reason. Out of the riches, three thousand coins must be given to the wife. When riches are given to her by her husband, she should enjoy them, without giving them away. When the husband dies without an heir, it has been said that the wife is entitled to enjoy all his riches. However, without asking him, a wife must never take her husband’s riches. O Yudhishthira! If a brahmana lady possesses any riches that have been given to her by her father, these are inherited by her daughter, since a daughter is like a son. O king! O descendant of the Kuru lineage! It has been decreed that she is equal to a son. O bull among the Bharata lineage! These are the instructions of dharma. If these instructions of dharma are remembered, any exercise in obtaining riches will not be rendered futile.”

  ‘Yudhishthira said, “It has been said that the son of a brahmana father and a shudra mother must be given riches. However, why must a tenth share be specifically given? There is no doubt that a son born through a brahmana father and a brahmana mother is a brahmana. That is also true of a kshatriya mother and a vaishya mother. O supreme among kings! In that case, why is there a differential in shares? After all, the sons of all three varnas have been said to be brahmanas.”

  ‘Bhishma replied, “O scorcher of enemies! All wives in the world are known by the single name of dara.1310 But though they are addressed by the same name, there are great differences between them. Even if a brahmana marries a brahmana wife after having already married three other wives, she is honoured as the eldest and is regarded as the seniormost. Objects for her husband’s bath, cosmetics, washing the teeth, collyrium, havya, kavya and everything that is connected with dharma will be kept in her room. When she is present, no one else should think of performing those acts. O Yudhishthira! In the rites, the brahmana wife alone should aid the brahmana. Because she is the foremost, food, drink, garlands, garments and ornaments should be given by the brahmana wife to the husband. O descendant of the Kuru lineage! This has been instructed by Manu in the sacred texts. O great king! Therefore, this has been seen as eternal dharma. O Yudhishthira! Out of desire, if a brahmana acts in a contrary way, it has already been said that he is like a chandala. The son born through a kshatriya wife is equal to the son born through a brahmana wife. O king! But even then, there is a difference in the varnas of the mothers. In this world, that is the reason why sons born through brahmana and kshatriya mothers are unequal. O supreme among kings! The son born through the brahmana mother is the foremost. O Yudhishthira! That is the reason he is regarded as the first in inheriting his father’s riches. The sons born through a brahmana mother and a kshatriya mother are not equal. In that way, the sons born through a kshatriya mother and a vaishya mother are not equal. O Yudhishthira! Prosperity, kingdoms and stores of riches have been recommended for kshatriyas. O king! The earth, up to the frontiers of the ocean, are seen to belong to them. If a kshatriya is established in his own dharma, he obtains a great deal of prosperity. The king is the wielder of the rod. O king! There can be no protection without the kshatriya. Brahmanas are extremely fortunate and are like gods among the gods. That is the reason, following the proper way, kings must worship them. Know that this is the eternal and undecaying dharma laid down by the rishis. When it decays, by adhering to their own dharma, kshatriyas protect subjects. Riches, wives and all the possessions of all the varnas would have been seized by bandits, had the king not existed as a protector. Thus, there is no doubt that the son of a kshatriya wife is superior to the son of a vaishya wife. O Yudhishthira! That is also the reason he deserves to have a greater share in the father’s riches.”

  ‘Yudhishthira asked, “O king! O grandfather! You have talked about the rules laid down for brahmanas. What are the rules that have been laid down for the other varnas?”

  ‘Bhishma replied, “O descendant of the Kuru lineage! Two wives have been recommended for a kshatriya. There are instances of a third and shudra wife, but this is not sanctioned by the sacred texts. O Yudhishthira! This is the order that has been laid down for kshatriyas. O Yudhishthira! The property of a kshatriya must be divided into eight parts. The son of a kshatriya wife will obtain four of those parts from the father’s riches. He should also take that much from the father’s possessions as is required for engaging in warfare. The son of a vaishya will obtain three parts and the son of a shudra will obtain the eighth part. But the son of a shudra should only take what has been given by the father. He should not take what he has not been given. O descendant of the Kuru lineage! A vaishya should only have a single wife. Sometimes, a second shudra wife is seen. But this is not sanctioned by the sacred texts. O bull among the Bharata lineage! O Kounteya! When a vaishya has both a vaishya and a shudra wife, rules have been laid down for a division between the two. O bull among the Bharata lineage! The property of a vaishya must be divided into five parts. O lord of men! I will tell you how this must be divided among the offspring. The son of the vaishya should take four parts from his father’s riches. O descendant of the Bharata lineage! The fifth part is the share for the son of the shudra. But the son of a shudra should only take what has been given by the father. He should not take what he has not been given. If the other three varnas have a son through a shudra wife, riches must be given to the son. A shudra can only have a wife from his own varna and not from any other. Even if he has one hundred sons, all of them will have an equal share in the shudra’s property. It has also specifically been said that if sons are born through the same varna, irresp
ective of the varna, all of them will have an equal share in the riches. However, the eldest son is the foremost and the eldest will therefore have one share more than the others. O Partha! This is the law of inheritance, as has been stated by Svayambhu earlier. O king! There is another difference in sons who have been born through the same varna. Especially at the time of marriage, the ones who have been born first must be married first. When the sons are equal, the eldest will obtain one share more. The son in the middle will obtain a medium share and the youngest a smaller share.1311 Among wives of different varnas, the one who has the same varna as her husband is regarded as the foremost. This is what was stated by maharshi Maricha, the son of Kashyapa.”’

  Chapter 1729(48)

  ‘Yudhishthira asked, “There is a mixture of the varnas and children of mixed parentage are born out of addiction to wealth, desire, uncertainty about varnas or plain ignorance. What are the rules for children of such mixed parentage? What is their dharma and what are their recommended tasks? O grandfather! Tell me this.” ‘Bhishma replied, “Earlier, for the sake of performing sacrifices, Prajapati created the four varnas and there were only four kinds of tasks. A brahmana can have four wives and in two of them, he himself is born.1312 The sons who are born from the two who are lower down are inferior and have the varna of their mothers. The son born through a brahmana father and a shudra mother is known as a parashava, because this is like offspring from a corpse.1313 He should not give up his own duty of servitude and should serve his own family. He should never abandon that kind of conduct. He must make every kind of effort to hold up the different strands of the family. Even if he is the eldest, he must devote himself to serving the younger ones who are brahmanas. A kshatriya can have three wives and he is himself born in two of these.1314 The third and shudra wife is inferior and the son born through this is known as ugra. A vaishya can have two wives and is himself born in both of these. A shudra can have only one wife and the son obtained through the shudra woman is also a shudra. Any birth outside the pale of the four varnas is condemned by the four varnas. Such a person is especially inferior and will oppress his preceptor’s wife. A kshatriya gives birth1315 to an outcast son known as a suta, who is not entitled to sacrifice, but is only entitled to sing praises and eulogies. A vaishya gives birth1316 to a vaidehaka, who earns a living through grass. A shudra gives birth1317 to a chandala, who is fierce, lives on the outskirts of habitations and acts as an executioner. These sons are born from brahmana mothers and are the worst of their lineages. O best among intelligent ones! O lord! These are the offspring of mixed parentage. The son born through a vaishya is a bandi or magadha1318 and earns a living through the use of words. If perversely, a shudra father has a son through a kshatriya mother, the son is known as a nishada and becomes a fisherman. If a shudra father has a son through a vaishya mother, the son is known as ayogava and he dwells in a village or earns a living from the forests. Brahmanas should not accept gifts from them. If those with mixed parentage have offspring through women who are like them in status, the offspring have the same varna. But if the mother’s status happens to be inferior, then the offspring that are born are inferior. For the four main varnas, the son has the same status as the father when the mother is of the same varna, or the one immediately below it. However, if the mother’s varna is below this too, in general, the offspring is outside the pale of the father’s varna. As long as parentage is from the same varna, the offspring also have the same varna. However, where the varnas have intercourse with each other, reprehensible categories are born. For example, a shudra father and a brahmana mother lead to offspring who are outcasts. In this way, those who are outside the four varnas can have offspring with those who are outside the four varnas and this leads to deterioration. There can be such repeated violations of varna, with outcast uniting with outcast. More and more inferior offspring are generated and there are fifteen in number. By having intercourse with someone one should not have intercourse with, a mixture of varnas results. The offspring of vratya and magadha are sairandhra.1319 They are servants, earn a living through menial servitude and know about cosmetics and toiletries. The offspring of vratya and ayogava are suta and they earn a living through words. The offspring of maireyaka and vaidehaka is madhuka. The offspring of nishada and mudgara is dasha and they earn a living as boatmen. The offspring of mritapa and chandala are shvapaka and they are extremely vile. The offspring of chatura and magadha are cruel and earn a living through deceit. They subsist by selling flesh, fragrances, tasty substances and by lending money. Vaidehakas are wicked and cruel and live off their wives. Nishadas give birth to madranabhas and they ride on vehicles drawn by asses. Chandalas give birth to pulkasas and they eat the flesh of asses, horses and elephants. These dress themselves in garments stolen from corpses and eat from broken vessels.1320 Three inferior varnas are born from ayogavas—kshudra, vaidehaka and andhra. They reside outside the outskirts of a village. Charmakaras are born from karavaras and nishadas. Pandusoupakas are born from chandalas and they make objects of use from stripped cane. Nishadas and vaidehakas give birth to ahindakas. Chandalas and soupakas give birth to those who earn a living through moudgalya. Nishadas and chandalas have sons who live outside human habitations. These sons live in cremation grounds and are exiled outside. Depending on the transgressions of the father and the mother, many such children of mixed parentage are born. Whether they disclose this or do not disclose this, they should know their own tasks. There is no dharma other than that for the four varnas. There are no indications about dharma for those who are outside the four varnas. They have been born out of wilfulness. They are outside the pale of virtue and no sacrifices have been recommended for them. Outcastes and more outcastes hae been born. They can dwell where they please and earn a living as they please. They reside at crossroads, in cremation grounds, in mountains, and even in trees. They wear ornaments and use many kinds of implements. There is no doubt that they act for the welfare of cattle and brahmanas. They have traits of non-violence, compassion, truthfulness in speech and forgiveness. O tiger among men! There is no doubt that by giving up their own lives to protect others, they can ensure success. I have recounted the instructions about how the intelligent ones have thought about men having offspring. One should not have offspring through a woman from a wrong varna. That would be like a stone sinking into the water. Irrespective of whether a man possesses intelligence or does not possess intelligence, he must not come under the subjugation of desire and anger and walk along an ignoble path. It is the nature of women to taint men. That is the reason learned people are not attracted to women.”

  ‘Yudhishthira asked, “There may be a man who is born of a wicked lineage, but his varna is unknown. O king! How does one discern whether he is noble or ignoble?”

  ‘Bhishma replied, “Those who are born of mixed parentage have many different kinds of conduct. The purity of birth can be discerned from one’s virtuous acts. Ignoble conduct, contrary behaviour, cruelty and not practising the rites—in this world, these are the signs of a man being born in a wicked lineage. A son inherits his father’s conduct, his mother’s conduct, or both. He will never be able to conceal his narrow nature. One is born with a form that is like that of the mother or the father. Just as a tiger’s stripes reveal, a man will be constrained by his own nature. Even if the origin of the lineage is hidden, if one is born of mixed parentage, a man will reveal himself, depending on whether his good conduct is a lot or is limited. To achieve some purpose, one may walk along a path and adopt a conduct that is apparently noble. However, adherence to good conduct will enable one to determine whether that person is from a superior varna or an inferior varna. People have many kinds of conduct and undertake many kinds of deeds. But in this world, there is nothing as important as good birth and good conduct. A man is affected by his body and his spirit. The spirit can be superior, middling or inferior. Depending on the spirit, one decides on what brings one pleasure. If a person has high birth, but lacks good conduct, he is not worshi
pped. And if a shudra has good conduct, he is worshipped by those who know about dharma. A man makes himself known through his own deeds. He shows his character through his conduct, good or bad. A man can destroy himself and his lineage, but he also makes it resplendent through his own deeds. That is the reason learned people avoid all those different kinds of women, where they are themselves not born.”’1321

  Chapter 1730(49)

  ‘Yudhishthira said, “O foremost among the Kuru lineage! Tell us about the different kinds of sons who are born in separate varnas. What kinds of sons are these? Who are they? Whose sons are they? We have heard that there have been many disagreements about these sons. O king! We are confused about this. You should sever our doubts.”

  ‘Bhishma replied, “Know that an anantaraja son is like one’s own self.1322 Know that a son who has been obtained through niyukta is called prasritaja.1323 When a husband unites with his wife, despite knowing that she has gone astray, the son obtained in this fashion is known as vadhyuda. There are six kinds of sons known as apadhvamsaja and also the one known as kanina.1324 O descendant of the Bharata lineage! Know that these are the kinds that have been mentioned.”

  ‘Yudhishthira asked, “Who are the six kinds of sons known as apadhvamsaja? Who is the one known as an apasada?. You should explain the truth about all this to me.”

  ‘Bhishma replied, “O Yudhishthira! O descendant of the Bharata lineage! The sons that a brahmana obtains through the three lower varnas, the sons that a king obtains through the two lower varnas and the sons that a vaishya obtains through the lower varna are understood to be apadhvamsajas. Now hear about apasadas. Chandala, vratya and vena—these are seen to be the three kinds of apasadas and are respectively born through a shudra father and a brahmana, kshatriya or vaishya mother. A vaishya father is seen to have magadha or vamaka sons, depending respectively on whether the mother is a brahmana or a kshatriya. When a kshatriya father is seen to have a son through a brahmana mother, the offspring is known as suta. These are said to be apasadas. O lord of men! One is incapable of falsely asserting that these kinds of sons aren’t really sons.”