19 An authoritative overview of the megalithic monuments of the Barbarian World is Magdalena S. Midgley, The Megaliths of Northern Europe (London, 2008); see also many other guides, such as Chris Scarre, Exploring Prehistoric Europe (New York, 1998).
20 Although the Boyne tombs are the most celebrated of these groups, I find Loughcrew to be the most interesting archaeologically, and Carrowmore has been the most thoroughly investigated in recent decades. Unfortunately, many of the graves at Carrowkeel were dug with poor methods over a century ago.
21 An excellent overview can be found in Geraldine Stout, Newgrange and the Bend of the Boyne (Cork, 2002); see also Geraldine Stout and Matthew Stout, Newgrange (Cork, 2008).
22 For a critical evaluation of the Newgrange reconstruction, see Gabriel Cooney, ‘Newgrange: A View from the Platform’, Antiquity, LXXX/309 (2006), pp. 697–708.
23 The Heritage Council (Ireland), ‘Significant Unpublished Archaeological Excavations, 1930–1997, Section 5, Megalithic Tombs/Neolithic Burial Practices’, http://heritagecouncil.ie, accessed 2 July 2016.
24 Including, of course, National Lampoon’s European Vacation (dir. Amy Heckerling, 1985) and This Is Spial Tap (dir. Rob Reiner, 1984).
25 The 2015 discovery of a ‘superhenge’ at Durrington Walls is the latest chapter in the Stonehenge story. See Elizabeth Palermo, ‘Super-henge Revealed: A New English Mystery is Uncovered’, www.livescience.com, 8 September 2015, among other reports.
26 Mike Parker Pearson et al., ‘Stonehenge’, in The Oxford Handbook of the European Bronze Age, ed. Harry Fokkens and Anthony Harding (Oxford, 2013), p. 160.
27 The current archaeological application of the word ‘henge’ has a specific meaning of an enclosure in which the bank is outside the ditch, so the early phase of Stonehenge technically is not a henge, but it is grandfathered into that category.
28 Parker Pearson, ‘Stonehenge’, p. 165.
29 Maria Dasi Espuig, ‘Stonehenge Secrets Revealed by Underground Map’, www.bbc.com/news, 10 September 2014.
30 Oliver E. Craig et al., ‘Feeding Stonehenge: Cuisine and Consumption at the Late Neolithic Site of Durrington Walls’, Antiquity, LXXXIX/347 (2015), pp. 1096–1109.
31 Vince Gaffney’s interpretation is discussed by Ed Caesar in ‘What Lies Beneath Stonehenge?’ www.smithsonianmag.com, September 2014.
32 Gerald S. Hawkins, Stonehenge Decoded (Garden City, NY, 1965).
33 Clive L. N. Ruggles, ‘Stonehenge and its Landscape’, in Handbook of Archaeoastronomy and Ethnoastronomy, ed. Clive L. N. Ruggles (New York, 2015), pp. 1223–38.
2 CONNECTIONS, RITUALS AND SYMBOLS
1 William O’Brien, Prehistoric Copper Mining in Europe, 5500–500 BC (Oxford, 2014), pp. 105–7.
2 Stephen Shennan, ‘Cost, Benefit and Value in the Organization of Early European Copper Production’, Antiquity, LXXIII/280 (1999), pp. 356–7.
3 See www.nationalbanken.dk/en/banknotes_and_coins, accessed 15 September 2016.
4 Emília Pásztor, ‘Nebra Disk’, in Handbook of Archaeoastronomy and Ethnoastronomy, ed. Clive L. N. Ruggles (New York, 2015), pp. 1349–56.
5 Anthony F. Harding, European Societies in the Bronze Age (Cambridge, 2000), pp. 45–8.
6 Peter S. Wells, ‘Investigating the Origins of Temperate Europe’s First Towns: Excavations at Hascherkeller, 1978–1981’, in Case Studies in European Prehistory, ed. Peter Bogucki (Boca Raton, FL, 1993), pp. 181–203.
7 Jason Urbanus, ‘Fire in the Fens’, Archaeology, LXX/1, pp. 34–9.
8 Robert Van de Noort, ‘Seafaring and Riverine Navigation in the Bronze Age of Europe’, in The Oxford Handbook of the European Bronze Age, ed. A. F. Harding and H. Fokkens (Oxford, 2013), pp. 382–97.
9 Ole Crumlin-Pedersen, ‘The Dover Boat: A Reconstruction Case-study’, International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, XXXV/1 (2006), pp. 58–71.
10 Johan Ling, ‘War Canoes or Social Units? Human Representation in Rock-art Ships’, European Journal of Archaeology, XV/3 (2012), pp. 465–85.
11 Stuart Needham, Andrew J. Lawson and Ann Woodward, ‘“A Noble Group of Barrows”: Bush Barrow and the Normanton Down Early Bronze Age Cemetery Two Centuries On’, Antiquaries Journal, XC (2010), pp. 1–39.
12 Bronze Age coffins, their occupants and their grave goods can be seen in the National Museum in Copenhagen: www.natmus.dk.
13 Karin Margarita Frei et al., ‘Tracing the Dynamic Life Story of a Bronze Age Female’, Scientific Reports, V, 10431; DOI: 10.1038/srep10431 (2015).
14 Mark Brennand et al., ‘The Survey and Excavation of a Bronze Age Timber Circle at Holme-next-the-Sea, Norfolk, 1998–9’, Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society, LXIX (2003), pp. 1–84.
15 Francis Pryor, Flag Fen: Life and Death of a Prehistoric Landscape (Stroud, 2005).
16 Joakim Goldhahn and Johan Ling, ‘Bronze Age Rock Art in Northern Europe: Contexts and Interpretations’, in The Oxford Handbook of the European Bronze Age, ed. A. F. Harding and H. Fokkens (Oxford, 2013), pp. 270–90. See also Ling, ‘War Canoes or Social Units?’
17 Joakim Goldhahn, ‘Bredarör on Kivik: A Monumental Cairn and the History of its Interpretation’, Antiquity, LXXXIII/320 (2009), pp. 359–71.
18 See www.museum.ie/Archaeology, accessed 1 December 2016, particularly the exhibit ‘Ór – Ireland’s Gold’, both on display at the museum and on their website.
19 Mary Cahill, ‘Irish Bronze Age Goldwork’, in Ancient Europe, 8000 BC– AD 1000: Encyclopedia of the Barbarian World, vol. II, ed. Peter Bogucki and Pam J. Crabtree (New York, 2004), pp. 69–71.
20 Christopher D. Standish et al., ‘A Non-local Source of Irish Chalcolithic and Early Bronze Age Gold’, Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society, LXXXI (2015), pp. 149–77.
21 Dermot F. Gleeson, ‘Discovery of Gold Gorget at Burren, Co. Clare’, Journal of the Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland, IV/1 (1934), pp. 138–9.
3 TRADE, SALT, GREEKS AND WEALTH
1 Michael N. Geselowitz, ‘Technology and Social Change: Ironworking in the Rise of Social Complexity in Iron Age Central Europe’, in Tribe and Polity in Late Prehistoric Europe, ed. D. Blair Gibson and Michael N. Geselowitz (New York, 1988), pp. 137–54.
2 Among many, Barry W. Cunliffe, The Ancient Celts (Oxford, 1997) remains the best. Michael Morse’s How the Celts Came to Britain (Stroud, 2005) investigates the social and cultural construction of ‘Celtic’ in scholarship beginning in the eighteenth century and continuing today.
3 Józef Kostrzewski, ‘Biskupin: An Early Iron Age Village in Western Poland’, Antiquity, XII/47 (1938), pp. 311–17. See also Anthony Harding and Włodzimierz Rączkowski, ‘Living on the Lake in the Iron Age: New Results from Aerial Photographs, Geophysical Survey and Dendrochronology on Sites of Biskupin Type’, Antiquity, LXXXIV/324 (2010), pp. 386–404.
4 Wojciech Piotrowski, ‘The Importance of the Biskupin Wet Site for Twentieth-century Polish Archaeology’, in Hidden Dimensions: The Cultural Significance of Wetland Archaeology, ed. Kathryn Bernick (Vancouver, 1998), pp. 90–98.
5 Ibid., p. 98.
6 Harding and Rączkowski, ‘Living on the Lake in the Iron Age’, pp. 389–98.
7 Anton Kern et al., Kingdom of Salt: 7000 Years of Hallstatt (Vienna, 2009). For a broader context of Hallstatt and salt production in prehistoric Europe, see Anthony Harding, Salt in Prehistoric Europe (Leiden, 2013).
8 These, and many other objects preserved in the salt and from the nearby cemetery, can be seen at the Natural History Museum in Vienna: www.nhm-wien.ac.at/en.
9 Bruno Chaume and Claude Mordant, Le Complexe aristocratique de Vix: Nouvelles recherches sur l’habitat et le système de fortification et l’environnement du Mont Lassois (Dijon, 2011).
10 Bettina Arnold, ‘Eventful Archaeology, the Heuneburg Mudbrick Wall, and the Early Iron Age of Southwest Germany’, in Eventful Archaeologies: New Approaches to Social Transformation in the Archaeological Record, ed. Douglas J. Bolender (Albany, NY, 2010), pp. 100–114.
11 M
anuel Fernández-Götz and Dirk Krausse, ‘Rethinking Early Iron Age Urbanisation in Central Europe: The Heuneburg Site and its Archaeological Environment’, Antiquity, LXXXVII/336 (June 2013), pp. 473–87.
12 Bettina Arnold, ‘A Landscape of Ancestors: The Space and Place of Death in Iron Age West-central Europe’, in The Space and Place of Death, ed. Helaine Silverman and David B. Small (Washington, DC, 2002), pp. 129–43.
13 Jörg Biel, ‘The Late Hallstatt Chieftain’s Grave at Hochdorf’, Antiquity, LV/213 (1981), pp. 16–18. The Keltenmuseum Hochdorf displays the finds from the tomb: see www.keltenmuseum.de.
14 J.V.S. Megaw, ‘The Vix Burial’, Antiquity, XL/157 (1966), pp. 38–44.
15 Jason Urbanus, ‘Eternal Banquets of the Early Celts’, Archaeology, LXVIII/6 (November–December 2015), pp. 44–9; see also ‘Une tombe princière celte du ve siècle avant notre ère découverte à Lavau’, www.inrap.fr, 10 March 2015/18 July 2016.
16 Niall M. Sharples, English Heritage Book of Maiden Castle (London, 1991).
17 Barry W. Cunliffe, ‘Danebury: The Anatomy of a Hillfort Re-exposed’, in Case Studies in European Prehistory, ed. Peter Bogucki (Boca Raton, FL, 1993), pp. 259–86.
4 ROMANS ENCOUNTER THE HIGH IRON AGE
1 This is not a term used by archaeologists, simply an expression invented for this book to characterize barbarian social, technological and artistic complexity encountered by the Romans and seen in archaeological data.
2 Mette Løvschal and Mads Kähler Holst, ‘Repeating Boundaries – Repertoires of Landscape Regulations in Southern Scandinavia in the Late Bronze Age and Pre-Roman Iron Age’, Danish Journal of Archaeology, III/2 (2014), pp. 95–118.
3 Fokke Gerritsen, ‘Domestic Times: Houses and Temporalities in Late Prehistoric Europe’, in Prehistoric Europe: Theory and Practice, ed. Andrew Jones (Oxford, 2008), pp. 143–61.
4 Stijn Arnoldussen and Richard Jansen, ‘Iron Age Habitation Patterns on the Southern and Northern Dutch Pleistocene Coversand Soils: The Process of Settlement Nucleation’, in Haus-Gehöft-Weiler-Dorf. Siedlungen der vorrömischen Eisenzeit im nördlichen Mitteleuropa, ed. M. Meyer (Rahden/Westfalen, 2010), pp. 379–97.
5 Arthur Bulleid and Harold St George Gray, The Glastonbury Lake Village: A Full Description of the Excavations and the Relics Discovered, 1892–1907 (Glastonbury, 1911); see also Stephen Minnitt, ‘The Iron Age Wetlands of Central Somerset’, in Somerset Archaeology: Papers to Mark 150 Years of the Somerset Archaeological and Natural History Society, ed. C. J. Webster (Taunton, 2001), pp. 73–8.
6 Gerard Aalbersberg and Tony Brown, ‘The Environment and Context of the Glastonbury Lake Village: A Re-assessment’, Journal of Wetland Archaeology, X/1 (2013), pp. 136–51.
7 See Carole L. Crumley, ‘Heterarchy and the Analysis of Complex Societies’, in Heterarchy and the Analysis of Complex Societies, ed. Robert Ehrenreich, Carole L. Crumley and Janet Levy (Washington, DC, 1995), pp. 1–5, for a seminal discussion.
8 Richard Brunning and Conor McDermott, ‘Trackways and Roads across the Wetlands’, in The Oxford Handbook of Wetland Archaeology, ed. Francesco Menotti (Oxford, 2012), pp. 359–84, provides a comprehensive overview.
9 Barry Raftery, ‘Ancient Trackways in Corlea Bog, Co. Longford’, Archaeology Ireland, I/2 (1987), pp. 60–64; Brunning and McDermott, ‘Trackways and Roads across the Wetlands’, p. 365. The Corlea trackway has been preserved and has a visitor centre.
10 See Miranda J. Aldhouse-Green, Bog Bodies Uncovered: Solving Europe’s Ancient Mystery (London, 2015), for a comprehensive overview, while Wijnand A. B. van der Sanden, ‘Bog Bodies: Underwater Burials, Sacrifices and Executions’, in The Oxford Handbook of Wetland Archaeology, ed. Francesco Menotti (Oxford, 2013), pp. 401–16, is a more compact review.
11 Tollund Man is in the Silkeborg Museum and can be seen in detailed photos on their website: www.tollundman.dk.
12 Karen E. Lange, ‘Tales from the Bog’, National Geographic Magazine, http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com, September 2007.
13 Where he can be visited today: see www.moesgaardmuseum.dk/en.
14 Lindow Man can be seen on display at the British Museum in London: see www.britishmuseum.org.
15 Eamonn P. Kelly, ‘An Archaeological Interpretation of Irish Iron Age Bog Bodies’, in The Archaeology of Violence: Interdisciplinary Approaches, ed. Sarah Ralph (Albany, NY, 2013), pp. 232–40. See also Lange, ‘Tales from the Bog’. Clonycavan and Oldcroghan Men can be visited in the National Museum, Dublin: see www.museum.ie/Archaeology.
16 Kelly, ‘An Archaeological Interpretation of Irish Iron Age Bog Bodies’, p. 239.
17 Jørgen Jensen, ‘The Hjortspring Boat Reconstructed’, Antiquity, LXIII/240 (1989), pp. 531–5.
18 Klavs Randsborg, Hjortspring: Warfare and Sacrifice in Early Europe (Aarhus, 1995), pp. 38–42; see also Flemming Kaul, ‘The Hjortspring Find: The Oldest of the Large Nordic War Booty Sacrifices’, in The Spoils of Victory: The North in the Shadow of the Roman Empire, ed. Lars Jørgensen, Birger Storgaard and Lone Gebauer Thomsen (Copenhagen, 2003), p. 218.
19 Barry W. Cunliffe, Hengistbury Head: The Prehistoric and Roman Settlement, 3500 BC–AD 500, vol. I (Oxford, 1987).
20 Barry W. Cunliffe, ‘Britain and the Continent: Networks of Interaction’, in A Companion to Roman Britain, ed. Malcolm Todd (Oxford, 2003), pp. 1–11.
21 Nico Roymans, Ethnic Identity and Imperial Power: The Batavians in the Early Roman Empire (Amsterdam, 2004), p. 4.
22 Colin Wells, ‘What’s New Along the Lippe: Recent Work in North Germany’, Britannia, XXIX (1998), pp. 457–64.
23 S. Von Schnurbein, ‘Augustus in Germania and His New “Town” at Waldgirmes East of the Rhine’, Journal of Roman Archaeology, XVI (2003), pp. 93–107.
24 See Tony Clunn, Quest for the Lost Roman Legions: Discovering the Varus Battlefield (El Dorado Hills, CA, 2009).
25 Peter S. Wells, The Battle That Stopped Rome: Emperor Augustus, Arminius, and the Slaughter of the Legions in the Teutoburg Forest (New York, 2003).
26 The recent find of a slaughtered army in the Alken Enge bog in Jutland, Denmark, suggests that perhaps leaving skeletons of the defeated on the battlefield was a more widespread practice. See Irene Berg Petersen, ‘An Entire Army Sacrificed in a Bog’, http://sciencenordic.com, 22 August 2012.
27 Strontium isotope analysis indicates that four of the individuals came from either Bavaria or Bohemia, which has been interpreted as representing remains of Germanic warriors disposed of after a failed attack. See Josef Mühlenbrock and Mike Schweissing, ‘“Frisch Erforscht!”: Die Skelette aus dem römischen Töpferofen in Haltern am See’, Archäologie in Westfalen-Lippe 2009 (2010), pp. 261–5.
28 Gabi Rasbach, ‘Waldgirmes’, Archaeological Journal, CLXX, supp. 1 (2013), pp. 18–21.
29 Maria Jażdżewska, ‘A Roman Legionary Helmet Found in Poland’, Gladius, XVII (1986), pp. 57–62.
30 Michael Meyer, ‘Roman Cultural Influence in Western Germania Magna’, in The Oxford Handbook of the Archaeology of Roman Germany, ed. Simon James and Stefan Krmnicek (Oxford, 2015), DOI: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199665730.013.8 (accessed 9 July 2016).
31 Timothy Taylor, ‘The Gundestrup Cauldron’, Scientific American, CCLXI (1992), pp. 84–9. The Gundestrup Cauldron can be seen at the National Museum in Copenhagen, and there is a detailed presentation of the cauldron on the museum’s website: http://en.natmus.dk/historical-knowledge/denmark/prehistoric-period-until-1050-ad/the-early-iron-age/the-gundestrup-cauldron, accessed 15 September 2016.
5 BARBARIANS BEYOND THE IMPERIAL FRONTIER
1 William O’Brien, Iverni: A Prehistory of Cork (Cork, 2012), p. 3.
2 In the historical literature, the term limes is often used to refer to the boundaries of Imperial Rome. It seems, however, that this term was not used by the Romans themselves while the boundary was maintained, but rather seems to have come into use later.
3 Peter A. Wells, The Barbarians Speak (Princeton, NJ, 1999), p. 94.
4 Guy Halsall,
‘Two Worlds Become One: A “Counter-intuitive” View of the Roman Empire and “Germanic” Migration’, Germanic History, XXXII (2014), p. 525.
5 To paraphrase the remark by Winston Churchill in a radio address on 20 January 1940.
6 Alexander Bursche, ‘Contacts between the Late Roman Empire and North-central Europe’, Antiquaries Journal, LXXVI/1 (1996), p. 34.
7 Kai Ruffing, ‘Friedliche Beziehungen. Der Handel zwischen den römischen Provinzen und Germanien’, in Feindliche Nachbarn: Rom und die Germanen, ed. Helmuth Schneider (Cologne, 2008), p. 162.
8 Summarized in Susan A. Johnston, ‘Revisiting the Royal Sites’, Emania, XX (2006), pp. 53–9.
9 Susan A. Johnston, Pam J. Crabtree and Douglas V. Campana, ‘Performance, Place and Power at Dún Ailinne, a Ceremonial Site of the Irish Iron Age’, World Archaeology, XLVI/2 (2014), pp. 206–23.
10 Bursche, ‘Contacts between the Late Roman Empire and North-central Europe’, p. 34.
11 Halsall, ‘Two Worlds Become One’, p. 525.
12 Kenneth Harl, Coinage in the Roman Economy (Baltimore, MD, 1996), p. 296.
13 Svante Fischer, Fernando López-Sánchez and Helena Victor, ‘The 5th Century Hoard of Theodosian Solidi from Stora Brunneby, Öland, Sweden: A Result from the Leo Project’, Fornvännen, CVI/3 (2011), p. 189.
14 Svante Fischer, Roman Imperialism and Runic Literacy: The Westernization of Northern Europe (150–800 AD), series AUN 33 (Uppsala, 2005).
15 Artur Błażejewski, ‘The Amber Road in Poland: State of Research and Perspectives’, Archaeologia Lituana, XII (2015), pp. 57–63.
16 Leonardo Gregoratti, ‘North Italic Settlers along the “Amber Route”’, Studia Antiqua et Archaeologica, XIX/1 (2013), p. 141.
17 Charlotte Fabech and Ulf Näsman, ‘Ritual Landscapes and Sacral Places in the First Millennium AD in South Scandinavia’, in Sacred Sites and Holy Places: Exploring the Sacralization of Landscape through Time and Space, ed. S. W. Nordeide and S. Brink (Turnhout, 2013), pp. 53–109.
Barbarians Page 19