by Roger Knight
27. Duffy, ‘World-wide War’, p. 202.
28. Esteban, ‘Fiscal Dimensions’, p. 79.
29. Bowen, ‘Mobilizing Resources’, pp. 90–110.
30. Crimmin, ‘Search for Timber’, p. 195.
31. 17 Nov. 1806, HL, STG 37 (33); Chatham Officers to Navy Board, 12 Sept. 1803, Hattendorf et al., British Naval Documents, pp. 505–6.
32. Albion, Forests and Sea Power, pp. 355, 420–21; Åström, ‘North European Timber’, pp. 92–7.
33. Munch-Petersen, Defying Napoleon, p. 46.
34. Davey, ‘British Intervention in the Baltic’, pp. 164, 177.
35. Voelcker, Saumarez, pp. 86–8.
36. Galpin, Grain Supply, p. 180.
37. Navy Board to Admiralty, 2 Jan. 1808, NMM, ADM BP/28.
38. Crimmin, ‘Search for Timber’, p. 213.
39. 27 Sept., 9, 11 Nov., 2 Dec. 1808, NMM, ADM BP/28.
40. Davey, ‘Sinews of Sea Power’, pp. 171–2, 178.
41. Rodger, Command of the Ocean, pp. 559–60; Arthur, War of 1812, p. 17.
42. Crowhurst, Privateering, pp. 203–4.
43. Losses of British merchantmen from French privateers are computed in 1803 to have totalled 22; 1804, 387; 1805, 507; 1806, 519; 1807, 559; 1808, 469; 1809, 571; 1810, 619; 1811, 470; 1812, 475; 1813, 371; 1814, 145. These figures do not include losses from Danish and Norwegian privateers after 1807, nor Dutch, nor from American privateers between 1812 and 1814 (Norman, Corsairs of France, p. 453).
44. Rodger, Command of the Ocean, pp. 559–60; Woodman, Britannia’s Realm, p. 187.
45. Woodman, Victory of Seapower, p. 61.
46. Grocott, Shipwrecks, p. 276, quoting the Sherbourne and Yeovil Mercury, 13 Feb. 1809.
47. Norman, French Corsairs, appendices.
48. Pearsall, ‘Protection of Trade’, pp. 155, 162.
49. Mackesy, War in the Mediterranean, p. 115; Woodman, Britannia’s Realm, p. 187.
50. Muir, Defeat of Napoleon, p. 165.
51. Grocott, Shipwrecks, pp. 306–7, quoting the Annual Register, 1811, pp. 6–7.
52. 18, 27 July 1810, Jennings, Croker Papers, Vol. I, pp. 33–4.
53. Between 1803 and 1815 only 175 privateers were fitted out, although 1,800 merchant ships optimistically took out ‘Letters of Marque’ (the document enabling a merchant ship to take a prize lawfully), and thus equipped these ships sailed over 5,000 voyages. Letters of Marque were issued to 509 ships sailing from London, and 401 from Liverpool, with the rest spread through many different British and colonial ports (Starkey, Privateering, Appendix 8).
54. Woodman, Britannia’s Realm, pp. 146–8.
55. Wilcox, ‘Navy Agents’, pp. 25–7.
56. Hill, Prizes of War, pp. 139–54.
57. The army received prize money for captured enemy equipment and other booty, but in far smaller amounts than the navy. The prince regent approved prize money in six payments for the Peninsular War for periods of service or for a particular action, broken down into six classes from general officers to the rank and file. For example, the third payment was for service in the capture of Ciudad Rodrigo and Badajoz in Jan. and Apr. 1812. Payments for the six classes were: general officers, £134.9s.10d.; field officers, £68.8s.1d.; captains, £11.2s.10d.; subalterns, £4.14s.1d.; sergeants, £2.10s.11d.; corporals, drummers, and rank and file, 7s.6d. (McGuffie, ‘Peninsular Prize Money’, p. 143).
58. The figure of 46.3 per cent has been calculated by Professor Dan Benjamin; private communication, 20 Feb. 2012.
59. Rodger, Command of the Ocean, p. 546.
60. Comfort, ‘Lloyd’s Patriotic Fund’, www.lloydsswords.com.
61. Aaslestad, ‘Continental System’, p. 118.
62. Daley, ‘Merchants in Normandy’, p. 37.
63. Duffy, Sugar and Seapower, pp. 389–90; Ellis, Continental System, p. 287.
64. Hattendorf et al., British Naval Documents, p. 352.
65. Holmberg, ‘French Decrees on Trade’, p. 2.
66. Licences could be issued by government officials abroad or by senior officers commanding British fleets. In 1806, 849 licences were issued, rising to 1,491 in 1807 and further increases took place in following years. Between 1806 and 1808, when Spain became an ally, 277 licences were issued for the import and export of goods to South America, for neutral ships leaving or calling at neutral ports such as Lisbon or Hamburg (Schulte Beerbühl, ‘Transnational Networks’, p. 25, quoting Privy Council Records, TNA, PC 1/3867).
67. Daley, ‘English Smugglers’, p. 41.
68. Sparrow, ‘Alien Office’, pp. 382–3.
69. Aaslestad, ‘Continental Blockade’, p. 119.
70. Information from Dr Jan Ruger.
71. Schulte Beerbühl, ‘Rothschild’, pp. 43, 45.
72. Marzagalli, ‘Hamburg’, pp. 29–30.
73. Aaslestad, ‘Continental System’, pp. 122–3.
74. Ibid., pp. 119–20.
75. Ferguson, House of Rothschild, Vol. I, pp. 56–7.
76. Daley, ‘City of Smugglers’, p. 337.
77. Holmberg, ‘French Decrees on Trade’, p. 4.
78. Davey, British Naval Strategy, pp. 190–91.
79. Sherwig, Guineas and Gunpowder, p. 12.
80. Pearce, ‘Hope–Baring Contract’, p. 1,326.
81. Bordo and White, ‘Two Currencies’, pp. 303–16.
82. Pearce, ‘Hope–Baring Contract’, pp. 1,324–45; Schulte Beerbühl, ‘Transnational Networks’, pp. 29–31.
83. D. W. Davies, Moore’s Peninsular Campaign, p. 67.
84. Gray, Perceval, pp. 331–5.
85. Fay, Huskisson, p. 69, quoting TNA, T/64/329.
86. Gray, Perceval, p. 331, quoting TNA, T1/999/2628.
87. Ibid., p. 337, quoting 2 Oct. 1808, Perceval MSS.
88. Ibid., p. 331, quoting Commons Accounts and Reports, 1812 (198), Vol. IX, p. 60.
89. Ibid., pp. 338–40.
90. Ibid., p. 341, quoting TNA, T27/64/490, 502; T29/102/119; T29/108/372.
91. Ibid., p. 324, quoting 9 Aug. 1812, Commissariat letter-books, BL, Herries MSS, Vol. III, pp. 150–51; TNA, T1/65/123.
92. Galpin, Grain Supply, p. 193.
93. Daley, ‘City of Smugglers’, pp. 336, 349.
94. According to a French ministerial report, in 1812 smugglers took goods from Gravelines to England to the value of 4.5 million francs. Lace was the single most valuable item. Silk products made up a quarter of its value, while alcohol made up a third, of which French brandy was the most important (Daley, ‘City of Smugglers’, p. 350).
95. Ferguson, House of Rothschild, Vol. I, p. 87.
96. Sherwig, Guineas and Gunpowder, p. 273, quoting TNA, FO 65/76.
97. Muir, Defeat of Napoleon, p. 111; Sherwig, Guineas and Gunpowder, pp. 4, 345–64, 365–8, 288, quoting Hansard, Vol. XXVII, 1814, col. 134.
98. Huskisson, Speeches, Vol. I, pp. 214–15.
99. Thorne, House of Commons, Vol. I, p. 141; Green, Navy and Anglo-Jewry, p. 98.
100. Muir, Defeat of Napoleon, p. 158, quoting the Annual Register.
101. Galpin, Grain Supply, pp. 74–5, quoting Parliamentary Papers, 1812, No. 210, p. 365.
102. West Essex Militia, Digest of Services, 1803–1908, TNA, WO 68/257.
103. Aaslestad, ‘Continental System’, pp. 127–8.
104. Holland Rose, ‘West Indies Trade’, p. 46.
105. Ferguson, House of Rothschild, Vol. I, pp. 83–4.
106. Ibid., pp. 67, 85.
107. Ibid., p. 89.
108. Sherwig, Guineas and Gunpowder, pp. 326–8.
109. Ibid., p. 342.
110. Ferguson, House of Rothschild, Vol. I, pp. 88–9.
PART FOUR: THE TABLES TURNED
14 Russia and the Peninsula 1812–1813
1. Muir, Alexander Gordon, p. 140.
2. Letter 48, HRC, Londonderry MSS, pp. 257–8.
3. Esdaile, Peninsular War, pp. 328, 330.
4. Ibid., pp. 378–9; Urban, Scovell, p. 131; Davies, Wel
lington’s Wars, p. 141; ‘Diplomats as Spymasters’, p. 44.
5. Muir, Defeat of Napoleon, p. 216.
6. Lieven, Russia Against Napoleon, pp. 135–7.
7. Ibid., pp. 138, 194, 203, 212–13.
8. Zamoyski, 1812, pp. 358–500.
9. Lieven, Russia Against Napoleon, pp. 278–82.
10. ODNB entry on Wellington.
11. Harvey, Collision of Empires, pp. 159–60, quoting from Marmont to Jourdan, 26 Feb. 1812, Marmont’s Mémoires du maréchal Marmont, duc de Raguse, 9 vols. (Paris, 1857), Vol. IV, p. 345.
12. Lieven, Russia Against Napoleon, pp. 102, 337–8.
13. Ibid., p. 262.
14. Ibid., pp. 30–31, 337; Sherwig, Guineas and Gunpowder, p. 282.
15. Davies, ‘Whigs and the Peninsula’, p. 123.
16. ODNB entry on Liverpool.
17. Davies, Wellington’s Wars, p. 124, quoting 10 Sept. 1810, BL, Add. MSS 38325.
18. Harling, ‘Old Corruption’, p. 134, quoting 29 Oct. 1811, BL Add. MSS 38196.
19. 27 Oct. 1812, Yonge, Liverpool, Vol. I, pp. 440–42.
20. Davies, Wellington’s Wars, p. 124.
21. Thompson, ‘Bathurst’, p. 160, quoting Nov. 1812, BL, Bathurst Papers, Vol. LX.
22. 22 Dec. 1812, Yonge, Liverpool, Vol. I, pp. 448–9.
23. Lieven, Russia Against Napoleon, pp. 307, 340, 350–51.
24. Thompson, ‘Bathurst’, pp. 163–4.
25. Hall, British Strategy, pp. 184–90.
26. Sherwig, Guineas and Gunpowder, pp. 365–8.
27. Moreira, ‘Portuguese Fiscal-Military State’, p. 267.
28. Moreira, ‘Portuguese State Military Expenditure’, pp. 112–13, 116, 122–4.
29. Hall, British Strategy, pp. 36–7; Wellington’s Navy, pp. 111–15.
30. Hall, Wellington’s Navy, p. 112, quoting Convoy Lists, TNA, ADM 7/64.
31. Redgrave, ‘Peninsular Logistics’, pp. 57–60; Knight and Wilcox, Sustaining the Fleet, p. 54; Galpin, ‘American Grain Trade’, p. 25.
32. Galpin, ‘American Grain Trade’, p. 42.
33. Redgrave, ‘Peninsular Logistics’, pp. 61, 66.
34. Hall, British Strategy, pp. 34–5.
35. Lieven, Russia Against Napoleon, p. 455.
36. Esdaile, Peninsular War, p. 454.
37. Duffy, ‘Festering the Spanish Ulcer’, p. 16, quoting Gurwood, Wellington’s Dispatches, pp. 9, 363; 10, 162, 479–80.
38. Ward, Wellington’s Headquarters, p. 87; Hall, Wellington’s Navy, p. 114.
39. Gates, Napoleonic Wars, pp. 189–92.
40. Davies, Wellington’s Wars, pp. 164–5; ‘Naval Intelligence’, p. 52; Robertson, Commanding Presence, pp. 214–15.
41. Duffy, ‘Festering the Spanish Ulcer’, p. 24, quoting from Hamilton, Byam Martin, Vol. II, p. 409; Hall, Wellington’s Navy, pp. 232–4.
42. Urban, Napoleon’s Codes, pp. 127–30, 202–4, 224–5.
43. Davies, ‘Diplomats as Spymasters’, pp. 45–6.
44. Davies, ‘Naval Intelligence’, p. 56.
45. Ibid., pp. 34, 47, 56.
46. Harvey, Collision of Empires, pp. 149–53.
47. Ibid., p. 150.
48. Gray, Perceval, p. 349.
49. Redgrave, ‘Peninsular Logistics’, p. 132, quoting Wellington to Bathurst, 21 Apr. 1813.
50. Harvey, Collision of Empires, p. 148; Sherwig, Guineas and Gunpowder, p. 255.
51. Davies, Wellington’s Wars, p. 204.
52. Lieven, Russia Against Napoleon, p. 458.
53. Hagemann, ‘Leipzig’, pp. 168, 170, 174.
54. Lieven, Russia Against Napoleon, pp. 479–93, 494–5, 516.
55. Ward, Wellington’s Headquarters, p. 62.
56. 17 Mar. 1813, Pellow, Sidmouth, Vol. III, p. 97.
57. Barrow, Autobiography, p. 320.
58. Harling, ‘Old Corruption’, p. 135; Thorne, History of Parliament, Vol. IV, p. 188.
15 The Manpower Emergency 1812–1814
1. Hamilton, Byam Martin, Vol. II, p. 368.
2. Bickham, Weight of Vengeance, pp. 62–5.
3. Arthur, War of 1812, p. 22; Bickham, Weight of Vengeance, pp. 27–8.
4. Muir, Defeat of Napoleon, p. 233.
5. Bickham, Weight of Vengeance, pp. 63, 78.
6. Dudley, Naval War of 1812, pp. 26–34.
7. Bellesiles, ‘Experiencing the War’, p. 208.
8. Kert, ‘Cruising in Colonial Waters’, p. 152.
9. Lambert, ‘War of 1812’, pp. 18–20, quoting Admiralty to Warren, 2 Dec. 1812, TNA, ADM 2/1107.
10. Arthur, War of 1812, p. 200; Muir, Defeat of Napoleon, pp. 235–40.
11. Muir, Defeat of Napoleon, pp. 306–9.
12. Bamford, ‘Manpower’, pp. 29–31.
13. Linch, Wellington’s Army, p. 16.
14. Rodger, Command of the Ocean, p. 639.
15. Arthur, War of 1812, pp. 41, 74–5.
16. Glover, ‘French Fleet’, p. 246, quoting Pellew to Croker, 20 Jan. 1813, TNA, ADM 1/424; 12 Feb. 1813, ADM/2,926.
17. Glover, Peninsular Preparation, pp. 219–31; Bamford, ‘Manpower’, p. 43.
18. Linch, Wellington’s Army, p. 38.
19. Glover, Britain at Bay, p. 224, quoting from 18 Mar. 1806, George III’s MSS, Royal Library, Windsor, 12407–18.
20. Cookson, Armed Nation, pp. 100–101.
21. Arnold, ‘Column versus Line’, p. 207.
22. Ibid.
23. Regimental Orders, 18 Aug. 1807, Monmouth Castle, RMRE/12/2; Watson, Militiamen and Sappers, p. 48.
24. Cookson, Armed Nation, p. 119.
25. Muir, Defeat of Napoleon, pp. 155–6.
26. Bamford, ‘Manpower’, p. 38, quoting Castlereagh to Lord Clancarty, TNA, WO1/198, pp. 217–19.
27. Linch, Wellington’s Army, p. 38, quoting Parliamentary Debates, 1812–1813, Vol. XXIV, col. 258.
28. Ibid., p. 122, quoting 1 Jan. 1811, TNA, WO30/80.
29. Cookson, Armed Nation, p. 119.
30. Linch, Wellington’s Army, p. 114, quoting 30 Aug. 1813, TNA, WO 25/3225.
31. Cookson, Armed Nation, p. 119.
32. Linch, Wellington’s Army, p. 114.
33. Bamford, ‘Manpower’, p. 26, quoting Army Digests in TNA, WO 17/2814.
34. Cookson, Armed Nation, p. 119.
35. Linch, Wellington’s Army, pp. 151–2.
36. Muir, Defeat of Napoleon, p. 309.
37. Fontana, ‘British/Irish Militia Exchange’, pp. 141, 157.
38. 31 Aug. 1813, Monmouth Castle, RMRE/12/14; Watson, Militiamen and Sappers, p. 49.
39. Crimmin, ‘Prisoners of War and Port Communities’, p. 19.
40. Crowhurst, French War on Trade, p. 209.
41. Crimmin, ‘Incarceration of Spanish Prisoners of War’, p. 231; MacDougall, Prisoners of War in Scotland, p. 708, both quoting Parliamentary Papers, Vol. IX, 1812, col. 301.
42. Chamberlain, ‘Marching into Captivity’, p. 222.
43. Registers of Prisoners aboard the Vanguard and Temeraire prison ships, TNA, ADM 103/430 and 438.
44. TNA, ADM 103, Index; Crimmin, ‘Exchange of Prisoners’, p. 148.
45. Lloyd, Prisoners of War, pp. 296–7; Chamberlain, Hell upon Water, pp. 238–40.
46. MacDougall, Prisoners of War in Scotland, pp. 567–8, 820.
47. Crimmin, ‘Prisoners of War and Port Communities’, p. 22.
48. Harvey, Collision of Empires, p. 198, quoting Roy Bennett, ‘French Prisoners of War on Parole in Britain 1803–1814’ (London Ph.D., 1964), pp. 201–10, 252–77, 345.
49. Daley, ‘English Smugglers’, p. 35, quoting list of French prisoners of war who had broken their parole up to 20 Nov. 1811, Archives Nationale, FF2 50; Daley, ‘City of Smugglers’, pp. 346–7.
50. Crimmin, ‘Prisoners of War and Port Communities’, pp. 17, 19.
51. MacDougall, Prisoners of War in Scotland, pp. 104–7, 110, 114–15.
52. Arthur, War of 1812, pp. 225–6.
53.
Ibid., pp. 106, 199, 221–6.
54. Bartlett and Smith, ‘Cochrane’s Naval Campaign’, pp. 180–86, 191.
55. Bickham, Weight of Vengeance, p. 258, quoting 9 Nov. 1814, Wellington’s Supplementary Despatches (London, 1858–72), Vol. IX, pp. 424–6.
56. Bickham, Weight of Vengeance, pp. 258–60.
57. 27 Dec. 1814, Pellow, Sidmouth, Vol. III, p. 122.
16 Final Victory
1. Muir, Defeat of Napoleon, p. 338, quoting Wellington, Supplementary Despatches, Vol. IX, p. 494.
2. Lieven, Russia Against Napoleon, p. 516.
3. 31 Dec. 1813, Cookson, British Armed Nation, p. 39, quoting Wellington, Supplementary Despatches, Vol. VIII, pp. 450–52.
4. Bew, Castlereagh, p. 360.
5. Muir, Defeat of Napoleon, pp. 325–6.
6. Zamoyski, Rites of Peace, pp. 211–12; Bew, Castlereagh, p. 366.
7. Zamoyski, Rites of Peace, pp. 209–10.
8. Muir, Defeat of Napoleon, p. 330.
9. Zamoyski, Rites of Peace, p. 211.
10. Coad, Block Mills, p. 103, reproduction of The Times, 27 June 1814.
11. Zamoyski, Rites of Peace, p. 217.
12. Sherwig, Guineas and Gunpowder, pp. 326–7.
13. Lady Sarah Napier to Lady Susan O’Brien, Dec. 1814, Ilchester and Stavordale, Lady Sarah Lennox, Vol. II, p. 263.
14. Hogg, Royal Arsenal, Vol. II, p. 592.
15. Crook and Port, King’s Works, p. 319, quoting 29 June 1814, Parliamentary Debates, 1814, cols. 420–22.
16. Zamoyski, Rites of Peace, pp. 173–4.