3. Peter Wraxall, An Abridgment of the Indian Affairs Contained in Four Folio Volumes, Transacted in the Colony of New York, from the year 1678 to the year 1751 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1915), 195.
4. Cynthia J. Van Zandt, Brothers among Nations: The Pursuit of Intercultural Alliances in Early America, 1580–1660 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008), quote at 12; Tom Arne MidtrØd, The Memory of All Ancient Customs: Native American Diplomacy in the Colonial Hudson Valley (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 2012); Jenny Hale Pulsipher, “Gaining the Diplomatic Edge: Kinship, Trade, Ritual, and Religion in Amerindian Alliances in Early North America,” in Empires and Indigenes: Intercultural Alliance, Imperial Expansion, and Warfare in the Early Modern World, ed. Wayne E. Lee, (New York: New York: University Press, 2011), 19–47; Leanne Simpson, “Looking after Gdoo-naaganinaa: Precolonial Nishnaabeg Diplomatic and Treaty Relationships,” Wicazo Sa Review: A Journal of Native American Studies 23 (Fall 2008), 29–42.
5. Smith’s account of his rescue, embellished in a letter to the Queen of England at the time Pocahontas visited London, is reprinted in Karen Ordahl Kupperman, ed., Captain John Smith: A Select Edition of His Writings (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1988), 69; Helen C. Rountree, Pocahontas’s People: The Powhatan Indians of Virginia through Four Centuries (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1990), 38 (Smith’s life saved three times); Frederic W. Gleach, Powhatan’s World and Colonial Virginia: A Conflict of Cultures (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1997); ch. 4; Van Zandt, Brothers among Nations, ch. 3.
6. EAID, 19: 26.
7. Colin G. Calloway, ed., The World Turned Upside Down: Indian Voices from Early America (Boston: Bedford Books, 1994), 79–83, 91–94; Jenny Hale Pulsipher, Subjects unto the Same King: Indians, English, and the Contest for Authority in Colonial New England (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2005).
8. Richard White, The Middle Ground: Indians, Empires, and Republics in the Great Lakes Region, 1650–1815 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991).
9. Dorothy V. Jones, “British Colonial Treaties,” in Handbook of North American Indians, ed. William C. Sturtevant, Vol. 4: History of Indian-White Relations, ed. Wilcomb E. Washburn (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution, 1988), 185–86; Timothy J. Shannon, Iroquois Diplomacy on the Early American Frontier (New York: Penguin, 2008), ch. 3; DuVal, Native Ground; Michael M. Pomedi, “Eighteenth-Century Treaties: Amended Iroquois Condolence Rituals,” American Indian Quarterly 19 (Summer 1995), 3129–39; Colin G. Calloway, New Worlds for All: Indians, Europeans, and the Remaking of Early America (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997), 115–33.
10. Wilbur R. Jacobs, ed., The Appalachian Indian Frontier: The Edmond Atkin Report and Plan of 1755 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1967), 38; WJP, 5: 39 (Croghan quote).
11. Lawrence C. Wroth, “The Indian Treaty as Literature,” Yale Review 17 (1928), 752.
12. Francis Jennings, William N. Fenton et al., eds., The History and Culture of Iroquois Diplomacy: An Interdisciplinary Guide to the Treaties of the Six Nations and Their League (Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press, 1985), xv.
13. EAID, 2: 244; 3: 204.
14. Donald L. Fixico, ed., Treaties with American Indians: An Encyclopedia of Rights, Conflicts, and Sovereignty. 3 vols. (Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO, 2008) 1: xxi; Vine Deloria, Jr., and Raymond J. DeMallie, eds., Documents of American Indian Diplomacy: Treaties, Agreements, and Conventions, 1775–1979, 2 vols. (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1999), 1: 103, 106–8; Peter Silver, “Indians Abroad,” William and Mary Quarterly 67 (January 2010), 153 (“crude theater”).
15. EAID, 13: 163.
16. EAID, 18: 58–59.
17. Jennings, History and Culture of Iroquois Diplomacy, 18–21; Williams, Linking Arms Together, 54–61.
18. Jones, License for Empire, 30; Pomedi, “Eighteenth-Century Treaties.”
19. EAID, 14: 81.
20. WJP, 2: 442–43.
21. Williams, Linking Arms Together, 32–37, 62, 71, 81–82, 100–102 (quote).
22. Deloria and DeMallie, Documents of American Indian Diplomacy, 1: 7.
23. Raymond J. DeMallie, “Touching the Pen: Plains Indian Treaty Councils in Ethnohistorical Perspective,” in Ethnicity on the Great Plains ed. Frederick C. Luebke (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1980), 39–40, 42; Williams, Linking Arms Together.
24. Cadwallader Colden, The History of the Five Indian Nations Depending on the Province of New-York in America (Part 1 and 2, 1727 and 1747; Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1964), xx.
25. Milo Milton Quaife, ed., John Long’s Voyages and Travels in the Years 1768–1788 (Chicago: R. R. Donnelley and Sons, 1922), 40.
26. Samuel Cole Williams, ed., Adair’s History of the American Indians (Johnston City, Tenn., 1930), 460.
27. William N. Fenton, The Great Law and the Longhouse: A Political History of the Iroquois Confederacy (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1998), 7; Nancy Shoemaker, A Strange Likeness: Becoming Red and White in Eighteenth-Century North America (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004), 65; Cary Miller, Ogimaag: Anishinaabbeg Leadership, 1760–1845 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2010), quote at 74.
28. Quaker quoted in Henry Harvey, History of the Shawnee Indians, from the Year 1681 to 1854 (Cincinnati: Ephraim Morgan and Sons, 1855), 51–52; and Gunlög Fur, A Nation of Women: Gender and Colonial Encounters among the Delaware Indians (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2009), 40.
29. For example, EAID, 6: 221, 228–230; 19: 342, 344–47, 373; Calloway, World Turned Upside Down, 85–86.
30. Julianna Barr, Peace Came in the Form of a Woman: Indians and Spaniards in the Texas Borderlands (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2007).
31. Greg O’Brien, “The Conqueror Meets the Unconquered: Negotiating Cultural Boundaries, on the Post-Revolutionary Southern Frontier,” Journal of Southern History 67 (February 2001), 59.
32. Michelle LeMaster, Brothers Born of One Mother: Gender and Family in British-Native American Relations in the Colonial Southeast (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2012), ch. 5.
33. Loretta Fowler, Wives and Husbands: Gender and Age in Southern Arapaho History (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2010), 68.
34. Fur, A Nation of Women; Nancy Shoemaker, “An Alliance between Men: Gender Metaphors in Eighteenth-Century American Indian Diplomacy East of the Mississippi,” Ethnohistory 46 (Spring 1999), 239–63.
35. James Axtell, ed., The Indian Peoples of Eastern America: A Documentary History of the Sexes (New York: Oxford University Press, 1981), 154–57; EAID, 10: 236 (Mohawk women’s request).
36. WJP, 3: 707–8; EAID, 10: 387.
37. Reuben G. Thwaites, ed., The Jesuit Relations and Allied Documents, 71 vols. (Cleveland: Burrows Brothers, 1896–1901), 21: 46–47.
38. Wilbur R. Jacobs, Wilderness Politics and Indian Gifts: The Northern Colonial Frontier, 1748–1763 (1950; reprint: Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1966); Joseph M. Hall, Jr., Zamuno’s Gifts: Indian-European Exchange in the Colonial Southeast (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2009); Cary Miller, “Gifts as Treaties: The Political Use of Received Gifts in Anishinaabeg Communities, 1820–1832,” American Indian Quarterly 26 (Spring 2002), 221–45.
39. EAID, 19: 36–37; Pulsipher, Subjects unto the Same King, 20. Canonicus’s gift may have had subtler spiritual meanings that were lost on the colonists; R. Todd Romero, Making War and Minting Christians: Masculinity, Religion, and Colonialism in Early New England (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2011), 141–49.
40. “The Treaty of Logg’s Town, 1752,” Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 13 (October 1905), 153.
41. Alfred Barnaby Thomas, The Plains Indians and New Mexico, 1751–1778 (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1940), 134–35, 151.
42. DRCHNY, 7: 186.
43. Timothy J. Shannon, “War,
Diplomacy, and Culture: The Iroquois Experience in the Seven Years’ War,” in Cultures in Conflict: The Seven Years’ War in North America, ed. Warren R. Hofstra (Lanham, Md.: Rowman and Littlefield, 2007), 93–95.
44. EAID, 2: 164, 399–400.
45. DRCHNY, 10: 563.
46. EAID, 3: 458–60; 10: 345–46.
47. F. Kent Reilly III, “Displaying the Source of the Sacred: Shell Gorgets, Peace Medals, and the Accessing of Supernatural Power,” in Peace Medals: Negotiating Power in Early America, ed. Robert B. Pickering et al. (Tulsa, Okla.: Gilcrease Museum, 2011), 9–17; Richard White, The Roots of Dependency: Subsistence, Environment, and Social Change among the Choctaws, Pawnees, and Navajos (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1983), chs. 3–4; John C. Ewers, “Symbols of Chiefly Authority in Spanish Louisiana,” in The Spanish in the Mississippi Valley, 1762–1804, ed. John Francis McDermott (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1974), 272–84; Greg O’Brien, Choctaws in a Revolutionary Age, 1750–1830 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2002), 72, 79; Charles A. Weeks, Paths to a Middle Ground: The Diplomacy of Natchez, Boukfouka, Nogales, and San Fernando de las Barrancas, 1791–1795 (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2005), 27–28, 35–36; “Superintendent Stuart’s 1765 Roster of Leading Choctaw Chiefs,” EAID, 12: 278–79.
48. Alfred Barnaby Thomas, ed., Forgotten Frontiers: A Study of the Spanish Indian Policy of Don Juan Bautista de Anza, Governor of New Mexico (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1932), 320.
49. Jacobs, Wilderness Politics and Indian Gifts, 180–85; White, Middle Ground, 256–68; Eric Hinderaker, Elusive Empires: Constructing Colonialism in the Ohio Valley, 1673–1800 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), 147–49; WJP, 3: 185–86, 345, 530–31, 733; 10: 649 (Amherst quote), 652, 657.
50. Thwaites, Jesuit Relations, 3: 225; 6: 243.
51. William M. Clements, Oratory in North America (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 2002), 84.
52. Thwaites, Jesuit Relations, 10: 219.
53. “Glossary of Figures of Speech in Iroquois Political Rhetoric,” in Jennings, History and Culture of Iroquois Diplomacy, 115–24; “Extract from my Journal of the 1st May 1774 Containing Indian Transactions &c” (August 4, 1774, p. 52), New York Public Library, Chalmers Collection: Papers Relating to Indians 1750–75 (“bad Birds”); EAID, 3: 114 (“Teeth outwards”); James H. Merrell, ed., The Lancaster Treaty of 1744 with Related Documents (Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2008), 70; and Susan Kalter, ed., Benjamin Franklin, Pennsylvania, and the First Nations: The Treaties of 1736–62 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2006), 106 (two penises).
54. Heidi Kiiwetinepinesiik Stark, “Marked by Fire: Anishinaabe Articulations of Nationhood in Treaty Making with the United States and Canada,” American Indian Quarterly 36 (Spring 2012), 122; Williams, Linking Arms Together, ch. 4, quote at 92.
55. Clements, Oratory in North America, 107–8; Thwaites, Jesuit Relations, 27: 259.
56. William A. Starna, “The Diplomatic Career of Canasatego,” in Friends and Enemies in Penn’s Woods: Indians, Colonists, and the Racial Construction of Pennsylvania, ed. William A. Pencak and Daniel K. Richter (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2004), 344–63; Merrell, The Lancaster Treaty of 1744, 1, 4, 84–86; Kalter, Benjamin Franklin, Pennsylvania, and the Six Nations, 117–19. The longer version of Canasatego’s speech to the Virginians is in Leonard W. Labaree, ed., The Papers of Benjamin Franklin, 39 vols. (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1959–), 4: 483.
57. Wroth, “The Indian Treaty as Literature,” 753.
58. Shannon, Iroquois Diplomacy on the Early American Frontier, 93; DeMallie, “Touching the Pen.”
59. Samuel Alexander Harrison, Memoir of Lieutenant Colonel Tench Tilghman: Secretary and Aid to Washington (1876; reprint, New York: Arno Press, 1971), 94.
60. Jones, License for Empire, 35.
61. Jennings, History and Culture of Iroquois Diplomacy, 38 (“no member”).
62. DRCHNY, 6: 781–88, 853–92; EAID, 10: 14–57. “Journal of the Proceedings of the Congress held at Albany, in 1754,” Collections of the Massachusetts Historical Society, 3rd ser., 5 (1836), 5–100, esp. 20; Timothy J. Shannon, Indians and Colonists at the Crossroads of Empire: The Albany Congress of 1754 (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 2000).
63. Shannon, Iroquois Diplomacy on the Early American Frontier, 23.
64. White, Middle Ground, ch. 2; Patricia Galloway, “‘The Chief Who Is Your Father’: Choctaw and French Views of the Diplomatic Relation,” in Powhatan’s Mantle: Indians in the Colonial Southeast, ed. Peter H. Wood, Gregory A. Waselkov, and M. Thomas Hatley (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1989), 254–78; Williams, Linking Arms Together, 71–74.
65. Hendrick Aupaumut, “A Narrative of an Embassy to the Western Indians,” Memoirs of the Historical Society of Pennsylvania 2, part 1 (1827), 76–77; Carl F. Klinck and James J. Talman, eds., The Journal of John Norton, 1816 (Toronto: Champlain Society, 1970), 84–85.
66. Jennings, History and Culture of Iroquois Diplomacy, 235, 246–47.
67. William Fenton, ed., “Answers to Governor Cass’s Questions by Jacob Jemison, a Seneca [ca. 1821–1825],” Ethnohistory 16 (Spring 1969), 122; EAID, 3: 553 (Teedyuscung); John Heckewelder, History, Manners, and Customs of the Indian Nations Who Once Inhabited Pennsylvania and the Neighboring States (1876; reprint, New York: Arno Press and the New York Times, 1971), 180–84.
68. Andrew Burnaby, Travels through the Middle Settlements in North America in the Years 1759 and 1760 with Observations upon the State of the Colonies (New York: Augustus M. Kelley, 1970), 112.
69. EAID, 17: 499–500.
70. More than 150 wampum belts are reproduced in Iroquois Indians: A Documentary History of the Diplomacy of the Six Nations and Their League, 50 reels (Woodbridge, Conn.: Research Publications, 1984).
71. James H. Merrell, Into the American Woods: Negotiators on the Pennsylvania Frontier (New York: W. W. Norton, 1999), 187.
72. Lawrence H. Leder, ed., The Livingston Indian Records, 1666–1723 (Gettysburg: Pennsylvania Historical Association, 1956), 201.
73. EAID, 20: 745 (Shirley); WJP, 9: 604 (Mohawk).
74. Jennings, History and Culture of Iroquois Diplomacy, xv; Jennings, The Invasion of America: Indians, Colonialism, and the Cant of Conquest (New York: W. W. Norton, 1975), 121.
75. EAID, 9: 51.
76. “The Treaty of Logg’s Town, 1752,” 156, 162.
77. Jane T. Merritt, “Metaphor, Meaning, and Misunderstanding: Language and Power on the Pennsylvania Frontier,” in Contact Points: American Frontiers from the Mohawk Valley to the Mississippi, 1750–1830, ed. Andrew R. L. Cayton and Frederika J. Teute (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1998), incident quoted at 72; David Murray, Forked Tongues: Speech, Writing and Representation in North American Indian Texts (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1991), 25.
78. Heckewelder, History, Manners, and Customs, 108.
79. Fenton, “Iroquois Treaty Making,” 17; Jennings, History and Culture of Iroquois Diplomacy, 88–90, 99–114.
80. Alain Beaulieu and Roland Viau, The Great Peace: Chronicle of a Diplomatic Saga (Ottawa: Canadian Museum of Civilization, 2001), 37.
81. Jasper Danckaerts, “Journal of a Voyage to New York and a Tour in Several of the American Colonies in 1679–1680,” in In Mohawk Country: Early Narratives about a Native People, ed. Dean R. Snow, Charles T. Gehring, and William A. Starna (Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press, 1996), 210–11.
82. A Journey from Pennsylvania to Onondaga in 1743 by John Bartram, Lewis Evans, and Conrad Weiser (Barre, Mass.: Imprint Society, 1973), 75–77, 116–31; EAID, 2: 65–72; cf. Jennings, History and Culture of Iroquois Diplomacy, 28–30.
83. DRCHNY, 10: 556.
84. Heckewelder, History, Manners, and Customs, 107–8.
85. Heckewelder, History, Manners, and Customs, 109.
86. NASPIA, 6: 49, 62.
87. John T. Juricek, Colonial G
eorgia and the Creeks: Anglo-Indian Diplomacy on the Southern Frontier, 1733–1763 (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2010), 6; Williams, Adair’s History of the American Indians, 63.
88. EAID, 13: 139.
89. EAID, 14: 92.
90. EAID, 18: 213–14. Some belts were more than two yards long, wrote US Indian agent Thomas Forsyth: “if for peace or friendship the Belts are composed solely of white grained wampum, if for war, they are made of the blue grained wampum painted red with vermillion, the greater the size of the Belt, the more force of expression is meant by it to convey.” Emma Helen Blair, ed., The Indian Tribes of the Upper Mississippi Valley and Region of the Great Lakes, 2 vols. (1911–12; reprint, Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1996), 2: 185, 188, 238–39.
91. WJP, 10: 845–46; EAID, 10: 412; Shannon, Indians and Colonists at the Crossroads of Empire, 4–6.
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