92. Fenton, “Answers to Governor Cass’s Questions,” 122.
93. Leder, Livingston Indian Records, 46, 91.
94. DRCHNY, 3: 780 (“venomous and detestable”); 4: 561 (five belts kicked); 9: 578 (Frontenac); EAID, 3: 374–75.
95. An Account of Conferences and Treaties made Between Major-general Sir William Johnson, Bart. And The Chief Sachems and Warriours of the … Indian Nations in North America … in the Years 1755 and 1756 (London, 1756), 27.
96. Quaife, John Long’s Voyages and Travels, 62–63.
97. Thwaites, Jesuit Relations, 58: 97–99; 59: 129–31.
98. Colin G. Calloway, One Vast Winter Count: The Native American West before Lewis and Clark (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2003), 237–38; White, Middle Ground, 20–23; Tanis C. Thorne, The Many Hands of My Relations: French and Indians on the Lower Missouri (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1996), ch. 1; Castle McLaughlin, “The Language of Pipes,” in Arts of Diplomacy: Lewis and Clark’s Indian Collection, ed. Castle McLaughlin (Cambridge, Mass.: Peabody Museum, Harvard; Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2003), 201–49.
99. Norman Gelb, ed., Jonathan Carver’s Travels through America, 1766–1768 (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1993), 175.
100. EAID, 9: 137.
101. EAID, 3: 351.
102. Williams, Linking Arms Together, 75–76; Miller, Compact, Contract, Covenant, 20, 286, 295.
103. Quaife, John Long’s Voyages and Travels, 61–62.
104. George Sabo III, “Rituals of Encounter: Interpreting Native American Views of European Explorers,” in Cultural Encounters in the Early South, ed. Jeanne Whayne (Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, 1995), 76–87.
105. Jacques Le Sueur, “History of the Calumet and of the Dance,” Contributions from the Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation 12, no. 5 (1952), 1–22; Donald J. Blakeslee, “Origin and Spread of the Calumet Ceremony,” American Antiquity 46 (1981), 759–68; William N. Fenton, The Iroquois Eagle Dance: An Offshoot of the Calumet Dance (Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press, 1953).
106. Fenton, “Answers to Governor Cass’s Questions,” 122.
107. Wraxall, Abridgment of the Indian Affairs, 70 (Ottawa pipe); 193 (1735 meeting); WJP, 9: 376–77 (Onondaga pipe); Fenton, Great Law and the Longhouse, 404, 486.
108. Blair, Indian Tribes of the Upper Mississippi Valley, 1: 184–86.
109. EAID, 4: 266.
110. “The Treaty of Logg’s Town, 1752,” 154.
111. Weeks, Paths to a Middle Ground, 27.
112. The Sacred Pipe: Black Elk’s Account of the Seven Rites of the Oglala Sioux, recorded and edited by Joseph Epes Brown (1953; reprint, Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1989), 115.
113. EAID, 2: 180.
114. William L. McDowell, Jr., ed., Colonial Records of South Carolina: Documents Relating to Indian Affairs, 1750–1754 (Columbia: South Carolina Archives Dept., 1958), 164.
115. Merrell, The Lancaster Treaty of 1744, 66.
116. Quoted in Merrell, Into the American Woods, 216–17.
117. EAID, 1: 206.
118. Harrison, Memoir of Lieutenant Colonel Tench Tilghman, 99.
119. Shoemaker, Strange Likeness, 76–81.
120. Matt Cohen, The Networked Wilderness: Communicating in Early New England (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2010).
121. DRCHNY, 5: 563, 566.
122. James Axtell, “The Power of Print in the Eastern Woodlands,” in his After Columbus: Essays in the Ethnohistory of Colonial North America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988), 86–99; Hilary E. Wyss, Writing Indians: Literacy, Christianity, and Native Community in Early America (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2000); Lisa Brooks, The Common Pot: The Recovery of Native Space in the Northeast (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2008).
123. Merrell, Lancaster Treaty of 1744, 55.
124. Jennings, History and Culture of Iroquois Diplomacy, 87.
125. WJP, 6: 761–62. The treaty the Esopus Indians made with Governor Richard Nicolls in 1665 is in the Ulster County Archives in Kingston, New York, and is available as a publication of the Ulster County Clerk’s Records Management Program.
126. For a close and insightful textual analysis, see James H. Merrell, “‘I desire all that I have said … may be taken down aright’: Revisiting Teedyuscung’s 1756 Treaty Council Speeches,” William and Mary Quarterly 58 (October 2006), 777–826.
127. Merrell, “‘I desire all that I have said.’”
128. Charles Thomson, An Enquiry into the Causes of the Alienation of the Delaware and Shawanese Indians from the British Interest, And into the Measures taken for recovering their Friendship (London: Printed for J. Wilkie, 1759), 67.
129. Calloway, World Turned Upside Down, 92–94; EAID, 20: 316–18. Such misconstructions were not rare: David L. Ghere, “Mistranslations and Misinformation: Diplomacy on the Maine Frontier, 1725 to 1755,” American Indian Culture and Research Journal 8, no. 4 (1984), 3–26.
130. Anthony F. C. Wallace, King of the Delawares: Teedyuscung, 1700–1763 (1949; Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press, 1990).
131. EAID, 1: 455–59.
132. EAID, 2: 24–25, 45–49; 3: 126 (rawboned), 149, 313; Kalter, Benjamin Franklin, Pennsylvania, and the First Nations, 206, 208–10, 213–14.
133. WJP, 3: 767.
134. Kalter, Benjamin Franklin, Pennsylvania, and the First Nations, 196; Merrell, “‘I desire all that I have said,’” 803–4; Merrell, Into the American Woods, 219–20; EAID, 3: 255–56; Thomson, An Enquiry into the Causes of the Alienation of the Delaware and Shawanese Indians, 110–12.
135. “Extracts of the Treaty held at Easton July 1757,” New York Public Library, Chalmers Collection: Papers Relating to Indians, 1750–75.
136. WJP, 7: 324.
137. WJP, 7: 852.
138. Juricek, Colonial Georgia and the Creeks, 5–6.
139. Eric Cheyfitz, The Poetics of Imperialism: Translation and Colonization from the Tempest to Tarzan (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), 104.
140. Quoted in Calloway, New Worlds for All, 124.
141. Merrell, Into the American Woods, 211.
142. Patricia Galloway, “Talking with Indians: Interpreters and Diplomacy in French Louisiana,” in Race and Family in the Colonial South, ed. Winthrop D. Jordan and Sheila L. Skemp (Jackson: University of Mississippi Press, 1987), 109–29.
143. Yasuhide Kawashima, “Forest Diplomats: The Role of Interpreters in Indian-White Relations on the Early American Frontier,” American Indian Quarterly 13 (Winter 1990), 1–14; Nancy Lee Hagedorn, “‘A Friend to Go Between Them’: Interpreters among the Iroquois, 1664–1775,” Ph.D. dissertation, College of William and Mary, 1995.
144. Wraxall, Abridgment of the Indian Affairs, 212.
145. Merrell, Into the American Woods, 33, 59, 66; Paul A. Wallace, Conrad Weiser, 1696–1760: Friend of Colonist and Mohawk (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1945).
146. Merrell, Lancaster Treaty of 1744, 111.
147. EAID, 3: 565–66. Weiser, of course, was German, not English.
148. Daniel K. Richter, “Cultural Brokers and Intercultural Politics: New York-Iroquois Relations, 1664–1701,” Journal of American History 75 (June 1988), 40–67, quote at 42.
149. “The Treaty of Logg’s Town, 1752,” 171–72.
150. W. W. Abbott and Dorothy Twohig, eds., The Papers of George Washington, Colonial Series, 10 vols. (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1983–), 1: 121, 124–25, 131, 146.
151. Jane T. Merritt, At the Crossroads: Indians and Empires on a Mid-Atlantic Frontier, 1700–1763 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2003), ch. 6.
152. James H. Merrell, “Shickellamy, ‘A Person of Consequence,’” in Northeastern Indian Lives, 1632–1816, ed. Robert S. Grumet (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1996), 241.
153. Colden, The History of the Five Indian Nations, xi.
154. DeMallie, “Touching the Pen,” 39.
155. Merrell, Into the American Woods, 296.
156. Colin G. Calloway, The Indian History of an American Institution: Native Americans and Dartmouth (Hanover, N.H.: University Press of New England, 2010), 58–61; Karim M. Tiro, “James Dean in Iroquoia,” New York History 80 (1999), 397–422.
157. Kalter, Benjamin Franklin, Pennsylvania, and the Six Nations, 72; EAID, 2: 38.
158. Merrell, Lancaster Treaty of 1744, 53–54; Kalter, Benjamin Franklin, Pennsylvania, and the Six Nations, 94–96; Shannon, Iroquois Diplomacy on the Early American Frontier, 112–13.
159. Merrell, Lancaster Treaty of 1744, 30.
160. Andro Linklater, Measuring America (New York: Walker and Co., 2002), 42–43.
161. Pennsylvania Archives, ser. 4, 2: 704; Shannon, Indians and Colonists at the Crossroads of Empire, 166–68. On the life and identity of this Hendrick, see Eric Hinderaker, The Two Hendricks: Unraveling a Mohawk Mystery (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2010).
162. Francis Jennings, The Ambiguous Iroquois Empire: The Covenant Chain Confederation of Indian Tribes with English Colonies from Its Beginnings to the Lancaster Treaty of 1744 (New York: W. W. Norton, 1984).
163. Peter C. Mancall, Deadly Medicine: Indians and Alcohol in Early America (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1995).
164. EAID, 5: 182; 2: 32–33, 66–67.
165. EAID, 5: 187.
166. EAID, 2: 188; 5: 191–93.
167. Wraxall, Abridgment of the Indian Affairs, 161–62.
168. Merrell, Lancaster Treaty of 1744, 44, 114–16.
169. EAID, 3: 541–42.
170. DRCHNY, 6: 984; EAID, 10: 107.
171. Heidi Bohaker, “Reading Identities: Meaning and Metaphor in Nindoodem Pictographs,” Ethnohistory 57 (Winter 2010), 11–33. On the distortion and omission of totems, see Patricia Kennedy, “Treaty Texts: When Can We Trust the Written Word?” Social Sciences and Humanities Aboriginal Research Exchange 3, No. 1 (Spring/Summer 1995), 1–24.
172. Albers and Kay, “Sharing the Land: A Study in American Indian Territoriality.”
173. NASPIA, 6: 48, 51; Angela Pulley Hudson, Creek Paths and Federal Roads: Indians, Settlers, and Slaves and the Making of the American South (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2010), ch. 2.
174. WJP, 10: 411. (Panis was a generic term for Indian slaves captured on the Plains and did not necessarily mean that this captive was a Pawnee.) Brett Rushforth, Bonds of Alliance: Indigenous and Atlantic Slaveries in New France (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2012), quote at 64.
175. Kalter, Benjamin Franklin, Pennsylvania, and the First Nations, 191–92 (“from the Teeth outwards”; Reuben G. Thwaites , ed., Early Western Travels 1748–1765 (1904; reprinted Lewisburg, Pa: Wennawoods Publishing, 1998), 199 (“wanted brains”); William Smith, An Historical Account of the Expedition against the Ohio Indians in the year 1764 (Philadelphia, 1766), 25–37.
176. EAID, 9: 10.
177. Juricek, Colonial Georgia and the Creeks, 7; EAID, 14: 7, 11–12 (“has not the consent”).
Chapter 2
1. William J. Campbell, “Converging Interests: Johnson, Croghan, the Six Nations, and the 1768 Treaty of Fort Stanwix,” New York History 89 (Spring 2008), 138; Campbell, Speculators in Empire: Iroquoia and the 1768 Treaty of Fort Stanwix (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2012).
2. Timothy J. Shannon, Iroquois Diplomacy on the Early American Frontier (New York: Penguin, 2008).
3. Timothy J. Shannon, “Dressing for Success on the Mohawk Frontier: Hendrick, William Johnson, and the Indian Fashion,” William and Mary Quarterly 53 (January 1996), 13–42.
4. EAID, 9: 595, 612; DRCHNY, 6: 739 (Clinton).
5. Gail D. Danvers, “Gendered Encounters: Warriors, Women, and William Johnson,” Journal of American Studies 35, no. 2 (2001), 187–202; and Gail D. MacLeitch, Imperial Entanglements: Iroquois Change and Persistence on the Frontiers of Empire (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2011), ch. 4; Lois M. Feister and Bonnie Pulis, “Molly Brant: Her Domestic and Political Roles in Eighteenth-Century New York,” in Northeastern Indian Lives, 1632–1816, ed. Robert S. Grumet (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1996), 295–320, persuaded chiefs quote at 302; Samuel Alexander Harrison, Memoir of Lieutenant Colonel Tench Tilghman: Secretary and Aid to Washington (1876; reprint, New York: Arno Press, 1971), 83.
6. Feister and Pulis, “Molly Brant,” 303.
7. EAID, 3: 573.
8. Milo Milton Quaife, ed., John Long’s Voyages and Travels in the Years 1768–1788 (Chicago: R. R. Donnelley and Sons, 1922), 112–13; other versions are in Thomas Perkins Abernethy, Western Lands and the American Revolution (New York: Russell and Russell, 1959), 16.
9. WJP, 1: 430.
10. WJP, 3: 269–75, quote at 271.
11. Alan Taylor, “The Collaborator,” New Republic (September 11, 2006), 33–37.
12. Dorothy V. Jones, License for Empire: Colonialism by Treaty in Early America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982), 59.
13. WJP, 10: 360.
14. William N. Fenton, The Great Law and the Longhouse: A Political History of the Iroquois Confederacy (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1998), 501, 510; EAID, 10: 90 (“raised up”), 703.
15. WJP, 10: 69.
16. McConnell, Michael N., A Country Between: The Upper Ohio Valley and Its Peoples, 1724–1774 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1992); Jon W. Parmenter, “The Iroquois and the Native American Struggle for the Ohio Valley,” in The Sixty Years’ War for the Great Lakes, 1754–1814, ed. David Curtis Skaggs and Larry L. Nelson (East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 2001), 105–24.
17. WJP, 3: 457.
18. “The Fitch Papers: Correspondence and Documents during Thomas Fitch’s Governorship of the Colony of Connecticut, 1754–1766,” Collections of the Connecticut Historical Society 18 (1920): 224; DRCHNY, 7: 520–21.
19. Gregory Evans Dowd, War under Heaven: Pontiac, the Indian Nations, and the British Empire (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002); David Dixon, Never Come to Peace Again: Pontiac’s Uprising and the Fate of the British Empire in North America (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2005); Richard Middleton, Pontiac’s War: Its Causes and Consequences (New York: Routledge, 2007); William R. Nester, Haughty Conquerors: Amherst and the Great Indian Uprising of 1763 (Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 2000), 50–52; Jon William Parmenter, “Pontiac’s War: Forging New Links in the Anglo-Iroquois Covenant Chain, 1758–1766,” Ethnohistory 44 (Autumn 1997), 617–54. On the Seneca role, see Anthony F. C. Wallace, The Death and Rebirth of the Seneca (New York: Vintage, 1969), 115–16.
20. “Journal of William Trent,” in Pen Pictures of Early Western Pennsylvania, ed. John W. Harpster (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1938), 103–4; Elizabeth A. Fenn, “Biological Warfare in Eighteenth-Century North America: Beyond Jeffery Amherst,” Journal of American History 86 (March 2000), 1552–80; Philip Ranlet, “The British, the Indians, and Smallpox: What Actually Happened at Fort Pitt in 1763?” Pennsylvania History 67 (Summer 2000), 427–41.
21. Peter Silver, Our Savage Neighbors: How Indian War Transformed Early America (New York: W. W. Norton, 2008); Kevin Kenny, Peaceable Kingdom Lost: The Paxton Boys and the Destruction of William Penn’s Holy Experiment (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009).
22. Colin G. Calloway, The Scratch of a Pen: 1763 and the Transformation of North America (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006).
23. The proclamation was issued as a broadside and was also published in The Gentleman’s Magazine in October 1763. It is reprinted in Adam Shortt and Arthur G. Doughty, eds., Documents Relating to the Constitutional History of Canada, 1759–1791, 2 vols. (Ottawa: Historical Documents Publication Board, 1918), 163–68, as well as in WJP, 10: 977–85.
24. WJP, 4: 330–31 (“At this Treaty”); John Borrows, “Wampum at Niagara: The Royal Proclamation, Canadian Legal H
istory, and Self-Government,” in Aboriginal and Treaty Rights in Canada, ed. Michael Asch (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1997), 155–72. The Niagara treaty is in WJP, 11: 278–324, and EAID, 10: 440–68.
25. J. R. Miller, Compact, Contract, Covenant: Aboriginal Treaty-Making in Canada (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2009), 66–70.
26. Daniel K. Richter, “Native Americans, the Plan of 1764, and a British Empire That Never Was,” in Cultures and Identities in Colonial British America, ed. Robert Olwell and Alan Tully (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2006), 269–92. Indian complaints in Croghan to Franklin, October 2, 1767, in Howard H. Peckham, ed., George Croghan’s Journal of his Trip to Detroit in 1767 with his Correspondence Relating Thereto (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1939), 23.
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