Pen and Ink Witchcraft

by Calloway, Colin G.

  27. Woody Holton, Forced Founders: Indians, Debtors, Slaves, and the Making of the American Revolution in Virginia (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1999), ch. 1, esp. 7–8, 29–31; Stuart Banner, How the Indians Lost Their Land: Law and Power on the Frontier (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2005), 100–109; Abernethy, Western Lands and the American Revolution, ch. 2.

  28. Jones, License for Empire, 3–4.

  29. DRCHNY, 7: 572–81, quote at 578.

  30. Jones, License for Empire, 76–78.

  31. Peter Marshall, “Colonial Policy and Imperial Retrenchment: Indian Policy 1764–1768,” Journal of American Studies 5 (1971), 1–17; Richter, “Native Americans.”

  32. James H. Merrell, Into the American Woods: Negotiators on the Pennsylvania Frontier (New York: W. W. Norton, 1999), 81, 295; Alan Taylor, William Cooper’s Town: Power and Persuasion on the Frontier of the Early American Republic (New York: Knopf, 1995), 45; William J. Campbell, “An Adverse Patron: Land, Trade, and George Croghan,” Pennsylvania History 76 (Spring 2009), 117–40.

  33. Nicholas B. Wainwright, George Croghan: Wilderness Diplomat (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1959), 28 (1749 grant); Albert T. Volwiler, George Croghan and the Westward Movement, 1741–1782 (Cleveland: Arthur H. Clark, 1926); Nancy Lee Hagedorn, “‘A Friend to Go Between Them’: Interpreters among the Iroquois, 1664–1775,” Ph.D. dissertation, College of William and Mary, 1995, 226–27.

  34. Wainwright, George Croghan, 189; WJP, 3: 987; 4: 63.

  35. Wainwright, George Croghan, 4, 212.

  36. For example, see WJP, 5: 386; 6: 312; 12: 68, 74, 423.

  37. Volwiler, George Croghan and the Westward Movement, 246–47.

  38. Campbell, “Converging Interests,” 127–41, quote at 130.

  39. Peter Marshall, “Lord Hillsborough, Samuel Wharton and the Ohio Grant, 1769–1775,” English Historical Review 80 (1965), 717.

  40. WJP, 4: 264–66 (tavern meeting), 270–71 (memorial), 399 (quote from Croghan letter); Abernethy, Western Lands and the American Revolution, 22–32; Jack M. Sosin, Whitehall and the Wilderness: The Middle West in British Colonial Policy, 1760–1775 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1961), 145–46.

  41. James Thomas Flexner, Mohawk Baronet: A Biography of Sir William Johnson (1959; reprint, Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press, 1989), 277.

  42. Jones, License for Empire, 78–79.

  43. Campbell, “Converging Interests,” 132–33.

  44. Jones, License for Empire, 79–83; DRCHNY, 7: 718–41 (Onondaga quote at 726), 750–58; “Journal of George Croghan at Pittsburgh,” EAID, 3: 702–11. Samuel Wharton included the Onondaga’s response in his View of the title to Indiana, a tract of country on the river Ohio: containing Indian conferences at Johnson-Hall, in May, 1765; the deed of the Six Nations to the proprietors of Indiana; the minutes of the congress at Fort Stanwix, in October and November, 1768; the deed of the Indians, settling the boundary line between the English and Indians lands; and the opinion of counsel on the title of the proprietors of Indiana (Philadelphia? 1775), 4.

  45. “Croghan’s Journal, 1765,” in Early Western Journals, 1748–1765, ed. Reuben G. Thwaites (Lewisburg, Pa.: Wennawoods, 1998), 139; WJP, 11: 836–38, 841, 853–55.

  46. James H. Hutson, “Benjamin Franklin and the West,” Western Historical Quarterly 4 (1973), 425–34; Sosin, Whitehall and the Wilderness, 146; Leonard W. Labaree, The Papers of Benjamin Franklin, 39 vols. (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1959–), 12: 398, 403–06; 13: 395–402.

  47. Quoted in Sosin, Whitehall and the Wilderness, 147.

  48. WJP, 12: 234–38.

  49. Sosin, Whitehall and the Wilderness, 162; Labaree, Papers of Benjamin Franklin, 14: 257–60 (Wharton quote at 259), 266–71.

  50. Labaree, Papers of Benjamin Franklin, 14: 324–26.

  51. Peckham, George Croghan’s Journal of His Trip to Detroit in 1767.

  52. Julian P. Boyd, ed., The Susquehannah Company Papers, 11 vols. (Cornell University Press for the Wyoming Historical and Genealogical Society, 1962), 2: 175–300 (“did not understand” at 299); “The Fitch Papers,” 224–27 (horrors of Indian war at 225), 229–334, “Thousand Families” at 230, 237–40; Anthony F. C. Wallace, King of the Delawares: Teedyuscung, 1700–1763 (1949; reprint, Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press, 1990), 258–61.

  53. WJP, 12: 392.

  54. DRCHNY, 7: 1004–5.

  55. WJP, 6: 22–23.

  56. WJP, 12: 385.

  57. DRCHNY, 8: 2; WJP, 12: 405–6.

  58. Marshall, “Colonial Protest and Imperial Retrenchment,” quote at 17.

  59. DRCHNY, 8: 2, 35–36.

  60. DRCHNY, 8: 23; Jones, License for Empire, 88.

  61. Alden T. Vaughan, Transatlantic Encounters: American Indians in Britain, 1500–1776 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006), 143.

  62. WJP, 12: 21, 337–40, 360, 456–58; DRCHNY, 8: 38–53, quotes at 42–43; Theda Perdue, “Cherokee Relations with the Iroquois in the Eighteenth Century,” in The Iroquois and Their Neighbors in Indian North America, 1600–1800, ed. Daniel K. Richter and James H. Merrell (Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press, 1987), 135–49.

  63. David L. Preston, The Texture of Contact: European and Indian Settler Communities on the Frontiers of Iroquoia, 1667–1783 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2009).

  64. DRCHNY, 8: 40, 47.

  65. DRCHNY, 7: 946–47.

  66. DRCHNY, 8: 76 (for later trips, WJP, 8: 837–38).

  67. “Letters of Colonel George Croghan,” Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 15 (1891), 429–30; Minutes of Conferences held at Fort-Pitt in April and May 1768, under the direction of George Croghan (Philadelphia: William Goddard, 1769), quotes at 12, 16; EAID, 3: 720–45, quotes at 732, 737.

  68. “Journal of the Proceedings of the Congress held at Albany, in 1754,” Collections of the Massachusetts Historical Society, 3rd ser. 5 (1836), 36.

  69. WJP, 12: 529–42, 566–67, 572–78, quotes at 577–78. Georgianna C. Nammack, Fraud, Politics, and the Dispossession of the Indians: The Iroquois Land Frontier in the Colonial Period (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1969), 53–69.

  70. WJP, 12: 476–77, 564.

  71. WJP, 12: 605–6, 608, 621, 627, 636.

  72. Labaree, Papers of Benjamin Franklin, 15: 275.

  73. WJP, 12: 617–19.

  74. “Proceedings of Sir William Johnson with the Indians at Fort Stanwix to Settle a Boundary Line,” in DRCHNY, 8:111–12; WJP, 12: 617–20.

  75. Wainwright, George Croghan, 256; Volwiler, George Croghan and the Westward Movement, 222.

  76. Volwiler, George Croghan and the Westward Movement, 268 (bounds of 2.5 million acres).

  77. Daniel M. Friedenberg, Life, Liberty, and the Pursuit of Land: The Plunder of Early America (Buffalo, N.Y.: Prometheus Books, 1992), 114 (finger quote); EAID, 5: 321–22, 335–36; Fenton, Great Law and the Longhouse, 536, 539.

  78. Shannon, Indians and Colonists at the Crossroads of Empire, 165–69.

  79. Merrell, Into the American Woods, 82.

  80. Hubertis Cummings, Richard Peters: Provincial Secretary and Cleric, 1704–1776 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1944), 8–11.

  81. Wainwright, George Croghan, 22–23.

  82. James. H. Merrell, “‘I desire all that I have said … may be taken down aright’: Revisiting Teedyuscung’s 1756 Treaty Council Speeches,” William and Mary Quarterly 58 (October 2006), 806–12.

  83. “Proceedings of Sir William Johnson with the Indians at Fort Stanwix,” 112; WJP, 12: 628–29; Johnson to Henry Moore, November 24, 1768, New York Public Library, Philip Schuyler Mss., Indian Affairs Papers, reel 7, box 13. Johnson said 3,008 at the opening “and more came in afterwards.” Wharton estimated 3,400 Indians attended; Labaree, Papers of Benjamin Franklin, 15: 275.

  84. Quoted in MacLeitch, Imperial Entanglements, 227.

  85. Francis Jennings, William N. Fenton et al.
, eds., The History and Culture of Iroquois Diplomacy: An Interdisciplinary Guide to the Treaties of the Six Nations and Their League (Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press, 1985), 239, 241, 252–53; Fenton, Great Law and the Longhouse, 510, 524, 529, 542; WJP, 12: 18; Thomas S. Abler, “Kaieñãkwaahtoñ,” Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online, vol. 4.

  86. Randolph C. Downes, Council Fires on the Upper Ohio (1940; Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1968), 143.

  87. Tanaghirison’s speech is in “The Treaty of Logg’s Town, 1752,” Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 13 (1905), 165; Peters’s comment in EAID, 2: 303. Nancy Lee Hagedorn, “‘A Friend to Go Between Them’: Interpreters among the Iroquois, 1664–1775,” Ph.D. dissertation, College of William and Mary, 1995, 16, 169–80; Hagedorn, “‘Faithful, Knowing, and Prudent’: Andrew Montour as Interpreter and Cultural Broker,” in Between Indian and White Worlds: The Cultural Broker, ed. Margaret Connell Szasz (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1994), 53–60; James H. Merrell, “‘The Cast of His Countenance:’ Reading Andrew Montour,” in Through a Glass Darkly: Reflections on Personal Identity in Early America, ed. Ronald Hoffman, Mechal Sobel, and Frederika J. Teute (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1997), 9–39.

  88. Hagedorn, “A Friend to Go Between Them,” 223; R. Arthur Bowler and Bruce G. Wilson, “John Butler,” Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online, vol. 4.

  89. Hagedorn, “A Friend to Go Between Them,” 236.

  90. DRCHNY, 8: 180; WJP, 6: 472–73.

  91. William N. Fenton, “Structure, Continuity, and Change in the Process of Iroquois Treaty Making,” in Jennings, History and Culture of Iroquois Diplomacy, 23, 27.

  92. “Proceedings of Sir William Johnson with the Indians at Fort Stanwix,” 114–15.

  93. “Proceedings of Sir William Johnson with the Indians at Fort Stanwix,” 115–17; Labaree, Papers of Benjamin Franklin, 15: 264.

  94. Fenton, Great Law and the Longhouse, 543.

  95. Fenton, Great Law and the Longhouse, 537.

  96. “Proceedings of Sir William Johnson with the Indians at Fort Stanwix,” 117–19; Labaree, Papers of Benjamin Franklin, 15: 276 (Wharton estimate).

  97. “Proceedings of Sir William Johnson with the Indians at Fort Stanwix,” 119.

  98. “Proceedings of Sir William Johnson with the Indians at Fort Stanwix,” 120.

  99. “Proceedings of Sir William Johnson with the Indians at Fort Stanwix,” 121.

  100. “Proceedings of Sir William Johnson with the Indians at Fort Stanwix,” 121–22.

  101. “Proceedings of Sir William Johnson with the Indians at Fort Stanwix,” 123–24.

  102. Karim M. Tiro, The People of the Standing Stone: The Oneida Nation from the Revolution through the Era of Removal (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2011), 30; “Proceedings of Sir William Johnson with the Indians at Fort Stanwix,” 124.

  103. WJP, 12: 656–57.

  104. “Proceedings of Sir William Johnson with the Indians at Fort Stanwix,” 124–25; WJP, 12: 656–59.

  105. “Proceedings of Sir William Johnson with the Indians at Fort Stanwix,” 125–26.

  106. “Proceedings of Sir William Johnson with the Indians at Fort Stanwix,” 122; WJP, 6: 472, 492, 529–30; Johnson to Henry Moore, November 24, 1768, New York Public Library, Philip Schuyler Mss., Indian Affairs Papers, reel 7, box 13.

  107. “Proceedings of Sir William Johnson with the Indians at Fort Stanwix,” 127.

  108. “Proceedings of Sir William Johnson with the Indians at Fort Stanwix,” 128, 135.

  109. “Proceedings of Sir William Johnson with the Indians at Fort Stanwix,” 128; Campbell, “An Adverse Patron,” 132 (“convenient” falling); Campbell, Speculators in Empire, 154–60 (excluding Lydius, 156).

  110. “Proceedings of Sir William Johnson with the Indians at Fort Stanwix,” 123.

  111. “Proceedings of Sir William Johnson with the Indians at Fort Stanwix,” 130–32.

  112. Labaree, Papers of Benjamin Franklin, 15: 277; “Proceedings of Sir William Johnson with the Indians at Fort Stanwix,” 134–35. A copy of the deed and the chiefs’ marks is in Philip Schuyler Mss., Indian Papers, reel 7, box 13.

  113. Jones, License for Empire, 107.

  114. Shannon, Iroquois Diplomacy on the Early American Frontier, 168.

  115. WJP, 6: 569; 12: 665–68.

  116. Flexner, Mohawk Baronet, 330.

  117. WJP, 6: 472.

  118. WJP, 6: 517.

  119. Labaree, Papers of Benjamin Franklin, 15: 278–79.

  120. Fenton, Great Law and the Longhouse, 540.

  121. Campbell, Speculators in Empire, 165.

  122. WJP, 6: 513.

  123. WJP, 12: 674; 6: 652.

  124. WJP, 12: 709–10.

  125. WJP, 12: 715.

  126. Stuart’s journal of the proceedings at Hard Labor is in EAID, 14: 272–81; the treaty is in EAID, 5: 326–30 and 14: 282–85.

  127. EAID, 12: 66–71.

  128. “Virginia and the Cherokees, &c: The Treaties of 1768 and 1770,” Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 13 (1905), 20–36; K. G. Davies, ed., Documents of the American Revolution 1770–1783 (Colonial Office Series), 20 vols. (Shannon: Irish University Press, 1972), 2: 261–62.

  129. EAID, 5: 360–71 (Attakullakulla quote at 365); 14: 298–99, 304–5, 320–21; Louis De Vorsey, Jr., The Indian Boundary in the Southern Colonies, 1763–1775 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1961), 64–92. The Kentucky River was also called the Catawba River at the time and, according to some sources, the Louisa, although the Louisa and Kentucky rivers may have been deliberately conflated with the Kentucky during the running of the boundary; Clarence Walworth Alvord, The Mississippi Valley in British Politics, 2 vols. (Cleveland: Arthur H. Clark Co., 1917), 2: 84–89.

  130. Labaree, Papers of Benjamin Franklin, 19: 3–4.

  131. Matthew L. Rhoades, Long Knives and the Longhouse: Anglo-Iroquois Politics and the Expansion of Colonial Virginia (Madison, N.J.: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 2011), 15.

  132. DRCHNY, 8: 145.

  133. DRCHNY, 8: 158–63, quote at 160.

  134. WJP, 7: 215–16.

  135. Abernethy, Western Lands and the American Revolution, ch. 3; Sosin, Whitehall and the Wilderness, ch. 8; Alvord, Mississippi Valley in British Politics, 2: chs. 4–6 (“better connections” quote at 96); Marshall, “Lord Hillsborough, Samuel Wharton and the Ohio Grant, 1769–75,” 717–39 (“unscrupulous” at 738, “casualties of war” at 737); James Donald Anderson, “Vandalia: The First West Virginia?” West Virginia History 40 (1979), 375–92; Hutson, “Benjamin Franklin and the West,” 434 (“absolutely nothing”); Labaree, Papers of Benjamin Franklin, 16: 163–69; 17; 8–11.

  136. WJP, 7: 78, 92, 221. For a full treatment of Croghan’s wheeling and dealing, see Campbell, Speculators in Empire.

  137. WJP, 7: 388.

  138. WJP, 7: 653; Holton, Forgotten Founders, 23; Wainwright, George Croghan, 275–77.

  139. Abernethy, Western Lands and the American Revolution, 69.

  140. Jones, License for Empire, 4 and ch. 5.

  141. Timothy J. Shannon, “War, Diplomacy, and Culture: The Iroquois Experience in the Seven Years’ War,” in Cultures in Conflict: The Seven Years’ War in North America, ed. Warren R. Hofstra (Lanham, Md.: Rowman and Littlefield, 2007), 96.

  142. Jones, License for Empire, 117–19.

  143. Eric Hinderaker, Elusive Empires: Constructing Colonialism in the Ohio Valley, 1673–1800 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), 170.

  144. Holton, Forced Founders, 11–12; Samuel Wharton, Plain facts: being an examination into the rights of the Indian nations of America, to their respective countries; and a vindication of the grant, from the Six United Nations of Indians, to the proprietors of Indiana, against the decision of the legislature of Virginia; together with authentic documents, proving that the territory, westward of the Allegany mountain, never belonged to Virginia, &c. (Ph
iladelphia: R. Aitken, 1781); Blake Watson, Buying America from the Indians: Johnson v. McIntosh and the History of Native Land Rights (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2012), 28, 140–43.