145. Alvord, The Mississippi Valley in British Politics, 2: 113 (Croghan quote); WJP, 7: 185 (McKee quote).
146. EAID, 3: 754–55.
147. MacLeitch, Imperial Entanglements, 201; Francis W. Halsey, ed., A Tour of the Hudson, the Mohawk, the Susquehanna, and the Delaware in 1769: Being the Journal of Richard Smith (Port Washington, N.Y.: Ira J. Friedman, 1964; New York: Purple Mountain Press, 1989), 84.
148. DRCHNY, 8: 239.
149. DRCHNY, 8: 304–6; Davies, Documents of the American Revolution, 3: 155–56.
150. WJP, 7: 184, 316; Davies, Documents of the American Revolution, 2: 22.
151. WJP, 7: 406–8; Davies, Documents of the American Revolution, 1: 159, 315; 2: 22, 24, 28, 87, 105, 204, 253–54, 261–62; 3: 85, 174.
152. Jones, License for Empire, 100–103; Davies, Documents of the American Revolution, 2: 204.
153. Davies, Documents of the American Revolution, 3: 43.
154. Davies, Documents of the American Revolution, 3: 135; DRCHNY, 8: 302.
155. Wilbur R. Jacobs, Dispossessing the American Indian (New York: Scribners, 1972), 100.
156. Stephen Aron, How the West Was Lost: The Transformation of Kentucky from Daniel Boone to Henry Clay (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996), 18–19; John Mack Faragher, Daniel Boone: The Life and Legend of an American Pioneer (New York: Henry Holt, 1992), 76–81, 89–97.
157. Aron, How the West Was Lost, ch. 1; Stephen Aron, “Pigs and Hunters: ‘Rights in the woods’ on the Trans-Appalachian Frontier,” in Contact Points: American Frontiers from the Mohawk Valley to the Mississippi, 1750–1830, ed. Andrew R. L. Clayton and Frederika J. Teute (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1998), 175–204; Colin G. Calloway, The Shawnees and the War for America (New York: Penguin, 2007), 49–51; “crazy people” quote in John Sugden, Blue Jacket: Warrior of the Shawnees (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2000), 46.
158. Letter from Oconostota, April 26, 1772, New York Public Library, Chalmers Collection: Papers Relating to Indians, 1750–75.
159. “Letters of Colonel George Croghan,” 434–37.
160. DRCHNY, 8: 396.
161. WJP, 12: 1038–39; DRCHNY, 8: 462.
162. WJP, 12: 1045.
163. Davies, Documents of the American Revolution, 2: 38 (cut throats); Jack M. Sosin, “The British Indian Department and Dunmore’s War,” Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 74 (1966), 34–50. The bulk of the papers in Chalmers Collection: Papers Relating to Indian Affairs, 1750–75, New York Public Library, deal with the diplomatic maneuverings leading up to Dunmore’s War.
164. Patrick Griffin, American Leviathan: Empire, Nation, and Revolutionary Frontier (New York: Hill and Wang, 2007), 91.
165. Fintan O’Toole, White Savage: William Johnson and the Invention of America (New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 2005), 325.
166. DRCHNY, 8: 460–61.
167. DRCHNY, 8: 474–79 (Serihowane quote at 476).
168. DRCHNY, 8: 480–82.
169. Fenton, Great Law and the Longhouse, 573–77.
170. DRCHNY, 8: 521.
171. Holton, Forced Founders, 28–31.
172. Reuben Gold Thwaites and Louise Phelps Kellogg, eds., Documentary History of Dunmore’s War, 1774 (Madison: Wisconsin Historical Society, 1905).
173. “Letters of George Croghan,” 437–38.
174. Charles A. Stuart, ed., Memoir of Indian Wars, and Other Occurrences, by the Late Colonel Stuart, of Greenbrier (New York: New York Times and Arno Press, 1971), 46–48; Thwaites and Kellogg, Documentary History of Dunmore’s War, 256, 259, 261–66, 275, 343, 346.
175. Jones, License for Empire, 107.
176. Robert L. Scribner et al., eds., Revolutionary Virginia, The Road to Independence: A Documentary Record, 7 vols. (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1973–83), 7: 770.
177. EAID, 18: 125–47, quotes at 145–47; Cornstalk’s speech to Congress, November 7, 1776, in “Letter Book of George Morgan 1776,” Pennsylvania Historical Commission, Harrisburg, Pa.; reproduced in Iroquois Indians: A Documentary History, reel 32.
178. On Cornstalk’s murder, see Stuart, Memoir of Indian Wars, 58–62; Draper Mss., State Historical Society of Wisconsin, microfilm, 3D164–73, 2YY91–94; Reuben G. Thwaites and Louise P. Kellogg, eds., Frontier Defense on the Upper Ohio, 1777–1778 (Madison: Wisconsin State Historical Society, 1912), 126–27, 149, 157–63, 175–77, 188–89, 205–9, 258–61.
179. EAID, 18: 161–69.
180. Davies, Documents of the American Revolution, 3: 72; William L. Saunders and Walter Clark, eds., The Colonial and State Records of North Carolina, 30 vols. (Raleigh: Department of State, 1886–90), 10: 764.
181. Colin G. Calloway, “Declaring Independence and Rebuilding a Nation: Dragging Canoe and the Chickamauga Revolution,” in Revolutionary Founders: Rebels, Radicals, and Reformers in the Making of the Nation, ed. Alfred F. Young, Gary B. Nash, and Ray Raphael (New York: Knopf, 2011), 185–98; Saunders and Clark, Colonial and State Records of North Carolina, 10: 660–61, 763–85; Davies, Documents of the American Revolution, 12: 191–208, esp. 202–3.
182. Fenton, Great Law and the Longhouse, 589–94.
183. Tiro, People of the Standing Stone, ch. 3; Joseph T. Glatthaar and James Kirby Martin, Forgotten Allies: The Oneida Indians in the American Revolution (New York: Hill and Wang, 2006); Walter Pilkington, ed., The Journals of Samuel Kirkland (Clinton, N.Y.: Hamilton College, 1980), 106–7.
184. Bowler and Wilson, “John Butler,” Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online, vol. 4; Alan Taylor, The Divided Ground: Indians, Settlers, and the Northern Borderland of the American Revolution (New York: Knopf, 2006), 177–79; “Proceedings of a Ceremony of Condolence on the death of Lieut. Col. Butler,” in The Correspondence of Lieut. Governor John Graves Simcoe, with allied Documents Relating to His Administration of the Government of Upper Canada, ed. E. A. Cruikshank, 5 vols. (Toronto: Ontario Historical Society, 1923–31), 4: 265–66.
185. Colin G. Calloway, The American Revolution in Indian Country (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), ch. 5, quote at 132–33; Thomas S. Abler, ed., Chainbreaker: The Revolutionary War Memoirs of Governor Blacksnake (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1989), 69, 85, 90.
186. Caitlin A. Fritz, “‘Suspected on both sides’: Little Abraham, Iroquois Neutrality, and the American Revolution,” Journal of the Early Republic 28 (2008), 299–335.
187. Cummings, Richard Peters, 328.
188. Volwiler, George Croghan and the Westward Movement, 323–36; Wainwright, George Croghan, 294–307.
189. Wainwright, George Croghan, 296.
190. Will and Codicil of Benjamin Franklin, July 17, 1788 (signed June 23, 1789), http://franklinpapers.org/franklin.
191. Colin G. Calloway, “Suspicion and Self-Interest: The British-Indian Alliance and the Peace of Paris,” The Historian 49 (November 1985), 41–60; Colin G. Calloway, Crown and Calumet: British-Indian Relations, 1783–1815 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1987), 5–13; National Archives, U.K., Colonial Office Records 5/82: 446–47 (Little Turkey); EAID, 18: 278–79.
Chapter 3
1. “Minutes of the Proceedings of the Commissioners for the Northern Department Commencing 29 April 1776,” New York Public Library, Philip Schuyler Mss., Indian Affairs Papers, reel 7, box 13; EAID, 18: 5–38, 43–57, 66–76.
2. “Letter Book of George Morgan 1776,” Pennsylvania Historical Commission, Harrisburg, Pa.; reproduced in Iroquois Indians: A Documentary History of the Diplomacy of the Six Nations and Their League, 50 reels (Woodbridge, Conn.: Research Publications, 1984), reel 32; Col. George Morgan Letter Books, I-II, Carnegie Library of Pittsburgh; Gregory Schaaf, Wampum Belts and Peace Trees: George Morgan, Native Americans, and Revolutionary Diplomacy (Golden, Colo.: Fulcrum, 1990).
3. Eliga H. Gould, Among the Powers of the Earth: The American Revolution and the Making of a New World Empire (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2012); Leonard J. Sadosky, Revolutionary Nego
tiations: Indians, Empires, and Diplomats in the Founding of America (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2009).
4. Col. George Morgan Letter Books, III: 92–102, 106, 150–52, 164, 175; EAID, 18: 167–69, 173–74.
5. EAID, 18: xxv.
6. NASPIA, 6: 27.
7. Dorothy V. Jones, License for Empire: Colonialism by Treaty in Early America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982), 150–51, 155.
8. EAID, 18: 460; NASPIA, 6: 65.
9. Herman J. Viola, Diplomats in Buckskins: A History of Indian Delegations in Washington City (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1981).
10. Robert B. Pickering et al., Peace Medals: Negotiating Power in Early America (Tulsa, Okla.: Gilcrease Museum, 2011); Francis Paul Prucha, Indian Peace Medals in American History (Madison: State Historical Society of Wisconsin, 1971); McKenney quoted in Viola, Diplomats in Buckskins, 104.
11. Carolyn Eastman, “The Indian Censures the White Man: ‘Indian Eloquence’ and Early American Reading Audiences in the Early Republic,” William and Mary Quarterly 65 (July 2008), 535–64.
12. NASPIA, 6: 65.
13. EAID, 18: 299–301.
14. Items dated July 2, 1783, and January 11, 1784, “Second Report on Indian Affairs and Western Country,” all in New York Public Library, Philip Schulyer Mss., Indian Affairs Papers, reel 7, box 14; EAID, 18: 290–91.
15. EAID, 18: 278–79.
16. “Proceedings of the United States and the Six Nations at Fort Stanwix” and “Treaty of Fort Stanwix,” in EAID, 18: 313–27; Henry S. Manly, The Treaty of Fort Stanwix, 1784 (Rome, N.Y.: Rome Sentinel Co., 1932); Sadosky, Revolutionary Negotiations, 127–40.
17. ASPIA, 1: 140, 143; NASPIA, 4: 25, 27.
18. EAID, 18: 332–38, quote at 335.
19. Franklin B. Hough, ed., Proceedings of the Commissioners of Indian Affairs, Appointed by Law for the Extinguishment of Indian Titles in the State of New York, 2 vols. (Albany, N.Y.: Munsell, 1861), 1: 214 (Beech Tree quote); Anthony Wonderley, “Good Peter’s Narrative of Several Transactions Respecting Indian Lands: An Oneida View of Dispossession, 1785–1788,” New York History 84 (2003), 237–73, quote on 261.
20. Hough, Proceedings of the Commissioners of Indian Affairs, 2: 274, 279, 299–300.
21. Quoted in Karim M. Tiro, The People of the Standing Stone: The Oneida Nation from the Revolution through the Era of Removal (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2011), 85; and David J. Silverman, Red Brethren: The Brothertown and Stockbridge Indians and the Problem of Race in Early America (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 2010), 140.
22. EAID, 18: 328–31 (“high tone” at 329); “Treaty with the Western Indians, Dec. 3, 1784,” Massachusetts Historical Society, Timothy Pickering Papers, 59: 119–26 (“give not to receive” at 122–23).
23. EAID, 18: 340–41; Military Journal of Ebenezer Denny: An Officer in the Revolutionary and Indian Wars (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott, 1850), 69–70.
24. EAID, 18: 158–59.
25. EAID, 18: 346–47, 593n.75; Military Journal of Ebenezer Denny, 73, 75; Minutes of Debates in Council on the banks of the Ottawa River, November 1791 Said to be held there by the Chiefs of the several Indian Nations, who defeated the Army of the United States, on the 4th of that Month (Philadelphia: William Young, 1792), 10.
26. NASPIA, 6: 48–49, 51–53.
27. EAID, 18: 444.
28. NASPIA, 6: 60; Greg O’Brien, “The Conqueror Meets the Unconquered: Negotiating Cultural Boundaries on the Post-Revolutionary Southern Frontier,” Journal of Southern History 67 (February 2001), 39–72.
29. NASPIA, 4: 17–18.
30. Reginald Horsman, Expansion and American Indian Policy, 1783–1812 (1967; Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1992), 30–49; ASPIA, 1: 9–10 (quotations); EAID, 18: 438–39, 481–97; Military Journal of Major Ebenezer Denny, 127–30.
31. Minutes of Debates in Council on the banks of the Ottawa River, 8–11, 14.
32. Robert M. Kvasnicka, “United States Indian Treaties and Agreements,” in Handbook of North American Indians, ed. William C. Sturtevant, Vol. 4: History of Indian-White Relations, ed. Wilcomb E. Washburn (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution, 1988), 195–201.
33. Hough, Proceedings of the Commissioners of Indian Affairs, Washington quote at 1: 166.
34. David Andrew Nichols, Red Gentlemen and White Savages: Indians, Federalists, and the Search for Order on the American Frontier (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2008).
35. IALT, 25–29.
36. NASPIA, 6: 139; 7, passim.
37. ASPIA 1: 203–6; Carole Goldberg, “Federal Policy and Treaty Making: A Federal View,” in Treaties with American Indians: An Encyclopedia of Rights, Conflicts, and Sovereignty, ed. Donald L. Fixico, 3 vols. (Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO, 2008), 1: 13.
38. ASPIA 1: 205; 6: 105.
39. NASPIA, 6: 140.
40. “Indian Council at the Glaize, 1792,” in The Correspondence of Lieut. Governor John Graves Simcoe, with Allied Documents Relating to His Administration of the Government of Upper Canada, ed. E. A. Cruikshank, 5 vols. (Toronto: Ontario Historical Society, 1923–31), 1: 218–29; Hendrick Aupaumut, “A Narrative of an Embassy to the Western Indians,” Memoirs of the Historical Society of Pennsylvania 2, pt. 1 (1827), 118.
41. Colin G. Calloway, “Simon Girty: Interpreter and Intermediary,” in Being and Becoming Indian: Biographical Studies of North American Frontiers, ed. James A. Clifton (Chicago: Dorsey Press, 1989), 38–58, quotes at 52; NASPIA, 4: 137; Benjamin Lincoln, “Journal of a Treaty Held in 1793, with the Indian Tribes North-West of the Ohio,” Collections of the Massachusetts Historical Society, 3rd series, 5 (1836), 150.
42. Cruikshank, Correspondence of Lieut. Governor John Graves Simcoe, 2: 17–19 (Indian speech); ASPIA, 1: 352–54, 356–57 (Indian speech); NASPIA 4: 136 (“impossible”), 139–40; Lincoln, “Journal of a Treaty Held in 1793,” 109–76 (Indian speech at 165–66).
43. Granville Ganter, ed., The Collected Speeches of Sagoyewatha, or Red Jacket (Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press, 2006), 1–15, 22–32. The proceedings of the councils at Tioga in 1790 and Newtown Point in 1791 are in Timothy Pickering Papers, reel 60, 69–112 (Red Jacket’s speeches at 92, 96, 105–6, 110), and reel 61, 55–100 (Red Jacket’s speeches at 62, 71, 82–83, 93).
44. Jack Campisi and William A. Starna, “On the Road to Canandaigua: The Treaty of 1794,” American Indian Quarterly 19 (Autumn 1995), 467–90; Ganter, The Collected Speeches of Sagoyewatha, or Red Jacket, 67 (“would not proceed”); “The Savery Journal: The Canandaigua Treaty Excerpt,” in Treaty of Canandaigua 1794: 200 Years of Treaty Relations between the Iroquois Confederacy and the United States, ed. G. Peter Jemison and Anna M. Schein (Santa Fe, N.M.: Clear Light, 2000), 260–93 (“to no purpose” quote at 287); William N. Fenton, ed., “The Journal of James Emlen Kept on a Trip to Canandaigua, New York, September 15 to October 30, 1794, to Attend the Treaty between the United Sates and the Six Nations,” Ethnohistory 12 (Fall 1965), 279–342 (“made the Men” quote at 306; “masters of their time” quote at 333).
45. Timothy Pickering Papers, reel 60, 221–22, 225; Laurence M. Hauptman, Conspiracy of Interests: Iroquois Dispossession and the Rise of New York State (Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press, 1999), 74 (Oneida land loss).
46. “The Savery Journal,” 271, 287.
47. Timothy Pickering Papers, reel 60, 224–225.
48. Timothy Pickering Papers, reel 60, 207–8. The treaty is in IALT, 34–37.
49. IALT, 37–39; Hauptman, Conspiracy of Interests, 74, 80.
50. The minutes and terms of the treaty are in NASPIA, 4: 150–77 (quotes at 152–53).
51. Andrew R. L. Cayton, “‘Noble Actors’ upon ‘the Theatre of Honour’: Power and Civility in the Treaty of Greenville,” in Contact Points: American Frontiers from the Mohawk Valley to the Mississippi, 1750–1830, ed. Andrew R. L. Cayton and Frederika J. Teute (Chapel Hill: University of Nor
th Carolina Press, 1998), 235–69. Barbara Mann takes a very different view of American behavior at Greenville. Wayne was rude, insulting, and inept in council protocol and the treaty itself was the culmination of almost half a century of fraudulent dealings in the Ohio county: see Barbara Alice Mann, “The Greenville Treaty of 1795: Pen-and-Ink Witchcraft in the Struggle for the Old Northwest,” in Enduring Legacies: Native American Treaties and Contemporary Controversies, ed. Bruce E. Johansen (Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 2004), 135–201.
52. NASPIA, 4: 153, 174.
53. IALT, 39–45, signatories at 44.
54. Paul A. Hutton, “William Wells: Frontier Scout and Indian Agent,” Indiana Magazine of History 74 (September 1978), 183–222.
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