55. Timothy Pickering Papers, reel 20, 254; John C. Fitzpatrick, ed., The Writings of George Washington from the Original Manuscript Sources, 1745–1799, 39 vols. (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1931–44), 25: 112.
56. Laurence M. Hauptman, The Tonawanda Senecas’ Heroic Battle against Removal (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2011), 5–6, 13 (quotation).
57. Jay Gitlin, “Private Diplomacy to Private Property: States, Tribes, and Nations in the Early National Period,” Diplomatic History 22 (Winter 1998), 91–94.
58. Jefferson’s letter to the Delawares was reprinted in Henry Harvey, History of the Shawnee Indians (Cincinnati: Ephraim Morgan and Sons, 1855), 129–31; Jefferson to Harrison in Francis Paul Prucha, ed., Documents of United States Indian Policy (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1975), 22–23; Anthony F. C. Wallace, Jefferson and the Indians: The Tragic Fate of the First Americans (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1999).
59. William S. Coker and Thomas D. Watson, Indian Traders of the Southeastern Spanish Borderlands: Panton, Leslie and Company and John Forbes and Company, 1783–1847 (Pensacola: University of West Florida Press, 1986), 228–29, 366, 370, and ch. 12 (quote at 229, map of 1805 cessions at 264, figures on 265, 271–72); Joel W. Martin, “Cultural Contact and Crises in the Early Republic: Native American Religious Renewal, Resistance, and Accommodation,” in Native Americans and the Early Republic, ed. Frederick E. Hoxie, Ronald Hoffman, and Peter J. Albert (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1999), 244–46 (quote).
60. IALT, 87–88; Clarence Edwin Carter, comp. and ed., The Territorial Papers of the United States, 28 vols. (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1934–75), 4: 173 (“friend to the United States”).
61. Donald Jackson, ed., Black Hawk, An Autobiography (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1955), 54, 87, 101.
62. Robert M. Owens, Mr. Jefferson’s Hammer: William Henry Harrison and the Origins of American Indian Policy (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2007).
63. Owens, Mr. Jefferson’s Hammer, 200–206 (“just to all” at 206); Harrison to Indians quoted in Goldberg, “Federal Policy and Treaty Making,” 20.
64. NASPIA, 4: 194.
65. NASPIA, 6: 339; IALT, 107–10.
66. Sadosky, Revolutionary Negotiations, 204.
67. Documents relating to the Treaty of Indian Springs are in NASPIA, 7 and 8: passim; 7: 28 (“horrid state”), 155 (“base treachery”), 157–58, 276–78 (lists of chiefs); Michael D. Green, The Politics of Indian Removal: Creek Government and Society in Crisis (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1982), 54–57, 69–97; Grace M. Schwartzman and Susan K. Barnard, “A Trail of Broken Promises: Georgians and Muskogee/Creek Treaties,” Georgia Historical Quarterly 75 (1991), 697–718; IALT, 86, 109, 156, 196–97, 215. Documents relating to McIntosh’s killing are in ASPIA, 2: 760–74.
68. Charles J. Latrobe, The Rambler in North America, 1832–1833, 2 vols. (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1835), 2: 149–54, 156–59; Anselm J. Gerwing, “The Chicago Indian Treaty of 1833,” Journal of the Illinois State Historical Society 57 (Summer 1964), 117–42; Milo M. Quaife, ed., “The Chicago Treaty of 1833,” Wisconsin Magazine of History 1 (March 1918), 287–303; James A. Clifton, “Chicago, September 14, 1833: The Last Great Indian Treaty in the Old Northwest,” Chicago History 9 (Summer 1980), 86–97. The treaty is in IALT, 2: 402–15 (schedule B lists the debts paid); the proceedings and other related documents are in “Documents relating to the negotiation of ratified and unratified treaties with various tribes of Indians,” T494, reels 2–3. “The United Nation of Chippewa, Ottawa and Potawatomi” in the treaty document included members of other Anishinaabe tribes who were affiliated with Potawatomi communities.
69. IALT, 273–77, 283–84, 292–300, 428–31, 450, 457–60, 462–63, 470–72, 486–87, 488.
70. Hauptman, Conspiracy of Interests, quote at 176; IALT, 502–16.
71. For example, see NASPIA, 6: 49.
72. Cary Miller, “Gifts as Treaties: The Political Use of Received Gifts in Anishinaabeg Communities, 1820–1832,” American Indian Quarterly 26 (Spring 2002), 230.
73. Benjamin Ramirez-Shkwegnaabi, “The Dynamics of American Indian Diplomacy in the Great Lakes Region,” American Indian Culture and Research Journal 27, no. 4 (2003), 67–71; Heidi Kiiwetinepinesiik Stark, “Marked by Fire: Anishinaabe Articulations of Nationhood in Treaty Making with the United States and Canada,” American Indian Quarterly 36 (Spring 2012), 122–23.
74. H. S. Halbert, “Story of the Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek,” Publications of the Mississippi Historical Society 6 (1902), 382–85; Michelene E. Pesantubee, “Beyond Domesticity: Choctaw Women Negotiating the Tension between Choctaw Culture and Protestantism,” in Native Women’s History in Eastern North America before 1900: A Guide to Research and Writing, ed. Rebecca Kugel and Lucy Eldersveld Murphy (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2007), 442–43.
75. Hauptman, The Tonawanda Senecas’ Heroic Battle against Removal; Colin G. Calloway, The Indian History of an American Institution: Native Americans and Dartmouth (Hanover, N.H.: University Press of New England, 2010), 90–91; Address on the Present Condition and Prospects of the Aboriginal Inhabitants of North America, with particular reference to the Seneca Nation. Delivered at Buffalo, New York, by M. B. Pierce, a Chief of the Seneca Nation, and a Member of Dartmouth College (Philadelphia: J. Richards, 1839); IALT, 537–42.
Chapter 4
1. Donald E. Worcester, ed., Forked Tongues and Broken Treaties (Caldwell, Idaho: Caxton, 1975), 38.
2. William G. McLoughlin, Cherokee Renascence in the New Republic (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986).
3. McLoughlin, Cherokee Renascence in the New Republic, ch. 16; Tiya Miles, The House on Diamond Hill: A Cherokee Plantation Story (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2010).
4. Thurman Wilkins, Cherokee Tragedy: The Ridge Family and the Decimation of a People (1970; reprint, Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1986), 38–41; William Anderson, Jane L. Brown, and Anne F. Rogers, eds., The Payne-Butrick Papers, Volumes 1, 2, 3 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2010), 102–5. The Treaty of 1805 is in IALT, 84.
5. McLoughlin, Cherokee Renascence in the New Republic, 104–5, 120–21; Wilkins, Cherokee Tragedy, 41.
6. Wilkins, Cherokee Tragedy, ch. 3.
7. Wilkins, Cherokee Tragedy, 94–96; Theda Perdue and Michael D. Green, eds., The Cherokee Removal: A Brief History with Documents. 2nd ed. (Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2005), 131–33; Theda Perdue and Michael D. Green, The Cherokee Nation and the Trail of Tears (New York: Penguin, 2007), 38–40, 45; Theda Perdue, “Cherokee Women and the Trail of Tears,” Journal of Women’s History 1 (Spring 1989), 14–30; Tiya Miles, “Circular Reasoning: Recentering Cherokee Women in the Antiremoval Campaigns,” American Quarterly 61 (June 2009), 221–43; Cherokee delegation to John C. Calhoun, February 11, 1824, LROIA, reel 71.
8. Wilkins, Cherokee Tragedy, 114–15.
9. Wilkins, Cherokee Tragedy, 144–45, 165–67; Anderson, Brown, and Rogers, The Payne-Butrick Papers, 194–99; NASPIA, 8: 32–33 (McIntosh expelled from Cherokee General Council).
10. 29th Congress, 1st session, House Document 185: 50.
11. Wilkins, Cherokee Tragedy, ch. 6.
12. Wilkins, Cherokee Tragedy, 130–31.
13. Wilkins, Cherokee Tragedy, 131–34, 146–53.
14. Theda Perdue, ed., Cherokee Editor: The Writings of Elias Boudinot (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1983), 68–79.
15. Perdue, Cherokee Editor, 10–11.
16. Wilkins, Cherokee Tragedy, 186–89.
17. Wilkins, Cherokee Tragedy, 189–90.
18. Margaret Bender, Signs of Cherokee Culture: Sequoyah’s Syllabary in Eastern Cherokee Life (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2002), 25–26; Ellen Cushman, The Cherokee Syllabary: Writing the People’s Perseverance (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2011).
19. The Cherok
ee Constitution of 1827 is in 20th Congress, 1st session, House Document 106: 31–40, and NASPIA, 9: 41–50.
20. Wilkins, Cherokee Tragedy, 198–99.
21. Phillip H. Round, Removable Type: Histories of the Book in Indian Country, 1663–1880 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2010), 123, 139.
22. Andrew Denson, Demanding the Cherokee Nation: Indian Autonomy and American Culture, 1830–1900 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2004), ch. 1; Maureen Konkle, Writing Indian Nations: Native Intellectuals and the Politics of Historiography, 1827–1863 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004), ch. 1.
23. On Ross’s ancestry, and the broader phenomenon of Scots-Cherokee intermarriage, see Colin G. Calloway, White People, Indians, and Highlanders: Tribal Peoples and Colonial Encounters in Scotland and America (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008), esp. 150–54.
24. Wilkins, Cherokee Tragedy, 208–9.
25. Perdue and Green, The Cherokee Removal, 114–21; Konkle, Writing Indian Nations, 61–78.
26. Lisa Ford, Settler Sovereignty: Jurisdiction and Indigenous People in America and Australia, 1788–1836 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2010), quote at 189.
27. Acts of the Georgia General Assembly, 1827, 1: 249; Report of the Georgia Legislature, December 19, 1827, LROIA, reel 72; “Resolutions of the Legislature of Georgia,” February 4, 1828, 20th Congress, 1st session, House Document 80: 12; NASPIA, 9: 61.
28. Perdue, Cherokee Editor, 105–6.
29. “Memorial of John Ross and Others,” March 3, 1829, 20th Congress, 2nd session, House Document 145: 1–3; NASPIA, 9: 139–41.
30. Ross Papers, 1: 167; “Correspondence on the Subject of the Emigration of Indians,” 1831–1833, 23rd Congress, 1st session, Senate Document 512, 2: 180–81.
31. Wilkins, Cherokee Tragedy, 212.
32. Francis Paul Prucha, ed. Cherokee Removal: The “William Penn” Essays and Other Writings by Jeremiah Evarts (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1981), 120, 194, 244, 251.
33. Ronald F. Reid, Edward Everett, Union Orator (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1990), 118–20.
34. Register of Debates in Congress, 1824–1837, 14 vols. (Washington, D.C.: Gales and Seaton), vol. 6, pt. 1 (Senate), 456; vol. 6, pt. 2 (House): 383, 1133; 21st Congress, 1st session: Senate Journal, 266–68; Journal of the House of Representatives, 729–30; Ronald N. Satz, American Indian Policy in the Jacksonian Era (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1975), 40–41, 53 (Webster’s stance).
35. “Correspondence on the Subject of the Emigration of Indians,” 1831–1833, 23rd Congress, 1st session, Senate Document 512, 2: 14–15, 365–66.
36. “Correspondence on the Subject of the Emigration of Indians,” 1831–1833, 23rd Congress, 1st session, Senate Document 512, 2: 229–36; Wilkins, Cherokee Tragedy, 210; McLoughlin, Cherokee Renascence in the New Republic, 437.
37. “Memorial of a Delegation from the Cherokee Indians,” January 18, 1831, 21st Congress, 2nd session, House Document 57: 19, quote at 2; “Correspondence on the Subject of the Emigration of Indians,” 1831–33, 23rd Congress, 1st session, Senate Document 512, 2: 203; 3: 241.
38. Clay to John Gunter, June 6, 1831, enclosed in Benjamin Currey to Harris, September 30, 1836, LROIA, reel 113.
39. Perdue, Cherokee Editor, 121.
40. Worcester v. Georgia, 31 U.S. 515, 559–60 (1832); Jill Norgren, The Cherokee Cases: Two Landmark Federal Decisions in the Fight for Sovereignty (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2004).
41. Ross Papers, 2: 242–43.
42. 29th Congress, 1st session, House Document 185, 50.
43. David Greene to John Ridge, May 3, 1832, Houghton Library, Harvard University, American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions [ABCFM] 1.3.1I: 1; quoted in Wilkins, Cherokee Tragedy, 240.
44. Wilkins, Cherokee Tragedy, 246.
45. Perdue, Cherokee Editor, 27–29, 31–33; Bethany Schneider, “Boudinot’s Change: Boudinot, Emerson, and Ross on Cherokee Removal,” English Literary History 75 (Spring 2008), 151–77; Daniel Blake Smith, An American Betrayal: Cherokee Patriots and the Trail of Tears (New York: Henry Holt, 2011), 136–46.
46. Theda Perdue, “The Conflict Within: The Cherokee Power Structure and Removal,” Georgia Historical Quarterly 73 (Fall 1989), 482–88.
47. Perdue, Cherokee Editor, 163; Ross Papers, 1: 247–50.
48. Perdue, Cherokee Editor, 26.
49. Quoted in Wilkins, Cherokee Tragedy, 246.
50. Dunlap to Jackson, August 25, 1833, LROIA, reel 75, quoted in Wilkins, Cherokee Tragedy, 257.
51. Wilson Lumpkin, The Removal of the Cherokee Indians from Georgia, 1827–1841, 2 vols. (New York: Dodd, Mead, and Co., 1907), 1: 128, 186–87, 345.
52. Lumpkin, The Removal of the Cherokee Indians, 1: 221–22.
53. Ross et al. to Jackson, March 12, March 28, 1834, LROIA, reel 76.
54. [Cherokees] to Cass, May 3, 1834, LROIA, reel 76.
55. “Memorial and Protest of the Cherokee Nation,” 24th Congress, 1st session, House Document 286: 133–37.
56. Gary E. Moulton, John Ross, Cherokee Chief (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1978), 57, 60.
57. Currey to Herring, August 25, 1834: John Ridge’s account of the August 1834 council in Currey to Cass, September 15, 1834, LROIA, reel 76.
58. John Ridge et al. to Currey, November 1834, LROIA, reel 76.
59. “Report of the Secretary of War … in relation to the Cherokee Treaty of 1835,” 25th Congress, 2nd session, Senate Document 120: 348–50; Ross Papers, 1: 314–18.
60. “Memorial and Protest of the Cherokee Nation,” 24th Congress, 1st session, House Document 286: 126–29.
61. “Memorial of a Council Held at Running Waters,” 23rd Congress, 2nd session, House Document 91: 1–7.
62. “Correspondence on the Subject of the Emigration of Indians,” 1831–33, 23rd Congress, 1st session, Senate Document 512, 3: 506–07.
63. Schermerhorn’s life and career are traced in James W. Van Hoeven, “Salvation and Indian Removal,” The Reformed Review 39 (1986?), 255–70.
64. The treaties are in IALT, 383–91, 394–97; proceedings and related correspondence are in “Documents relating to the negotiation of ratified and unratified treaties with various tribes of Indians,” National Archives microfilm T494, reels 2–3.
65. “Documents relative to a council held with the Potawatomie Indians at Logan’s Post, Indiana, June 17, 1833,” and “Documents relative to a Council of the Six Nations, Sept. 18, 1833,” both in “Documents relating to the negotiation of ratified and unratified treaties with various tribes of Indians,” T494, reel 2.
66. “Correspondence on the Subject of the Emigration of Indians,” 1831–33, 23rd Congress, 1st session, Senate Document 512, 4: 577 (Schermerhorn’s account); Anselm J. Gerwing, “The Chicago Indian Treaty of 1833,” Journal of the Illinois State Historical Society 57 (Summer 1964), 117–42 (Senate amendment and quote at 138). The treaty is in IALT, 402–15; the proceedings and other related documents are in “Documents relating to the negotiation of ratified and unratified treaties with various tribes of Indians,” T494, reels 2–3. The charges brought against Governor Porter and his refutation are in Milo M. Quaife, ed., “The Chicago Treaty of 1833,” Wisconsin Magazine of History 1 (March 1918), 287–303 ($10,000 bribe at 290, 298).
67. “Correspondence on the Subject of the Emigration of Indians,” 1831–33, 23rd Congress, 1st session, Senate Document 512, 4: 724; Jay Gitlin, “Private Diplomacy to Private Property: States, Tribes, and Nations in the Early National Period,” Diplomatic History 22 (Winter 1998), 96. On Richardville’s changing stance on removal treaties, see Melissa Rinehart, “Miami Resistance and Resilience during the Removal Era,” in Contested Territories: Native Americans and Non-Natives in the Lower Great Lakes, 1700–1850, ed. Charles Beatty-Medina and Melissa Rinehart (East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 2012), ch. 6.
68. LROIA, reel 79, Cherokee Agency, 1834–36. The 1
828 treaty with the western Cherokees is in IALT, 286–92.
69. Wilkins, Cherokee Tragedy, 267–68; “Report of the Secretary of War … in relation to the Cherokee Treaty of 1835,” 25th Congress, 2nd session, Senate Document 120: 94–104. The unratified treaty of March 1835 and Jackson’s proclamation of March 16, 1835, are in “Documents relating to the negotiation of ratified and unratified treaties with various tribes of Indians,” T494, reel 3.
70. “Report of the Secretary of War … in relation to the Cherokee Treaty of 1835,” 25th Congress, 2nd session, Senate Document 120: 359–60; “Memorial and Protest of the Cherokee Nation,” 24th Congress, 1st session, House Document 286: 355–63; Ridge to Cass, March 13, 1835, LROIA, reel 76.
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