Schneider, Bethany. “Boudinot’s Change: Boudinot, Emerson, and Ross on Cherokee Removal.” English Literary History 75 (2008), 151–77.
Seed, Patricia. Ceremonies of Possession in Europe’s Conquest of the New World, 1492–1640. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995.
Shannon, Timothy J. Indians and Colonists at the Crossroads of Empire: The Albany Congress of 1754. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 2000.
Shannon, Timothy J. Iroquois Diplomacy on the Early American Frontier. New York: Penguin, 2008.
Shoemaker, Nancy. “An Alliance between Men: Gender Metaphors in Eighteenth-Century American Indian Diplomacy East of the Mississippi.” Ethnohistory 46 (Spring 1999), 239–63.
Shoemaker, Nancy. A Strange Likeness: Becoming Red and White in Eighteenth-Century North America. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004.
Simpson, Leanne. “Looking after Gdoo-naaganinaa: Precolonial Nishnaabeg Diplomatic and Treaty Relationships,” Wicazo Sa Review: A Journal of Native American Studies, 23 (Autumn, 2008), 29–42.
Smith, Daniel Blake. An American Betrayal: Cherokee Patriots and the Trail of Tears. New York: Henry Holt, 2011.
Smith, Ralph. “The Fantasy of a Treaty to End Treaties.” Great Plains Journal 12 (Fall 1972), 26–51.
Stark, Heidi Kiiwetinepinesiik. “Marked by Fire: Anishinaabe Articulations of Nationhood in Treaty Making with the United States and Canada,” American Indian Quarterly, 36 (Spring 2012), 119–49.
Starna, William A. “The Diplomatic Career of Canasatego.” In Friends and Enemies in Penn’s Woods: Indians, Colonists, and the Racial Construction of Pennsylvania, ed. William A. Pencak and Daniel K. Richter, 344–63. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2004.
Szabo, Joyce M. “Medicine Lodge Treaty Remembered.” American Indian Art Magazine 14 (Autumn 1989), 52–59.
Tiro, Karim M. The People of the Standing Stone: The Oneida Nation from the Revolution through the Era of Removal. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2011.
Trennert, Robert A., Jr. Alternative to Extinction: Federal Indian Policy and the Beginnings of the Reservation System, 1846–1851. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1975.
Unrau, William E. The Rise and Fall of Indian Country, 1825–1855. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2007.
VanDevelder, Paul. Savages and Scoundrels: The Untold Story of America’s Road to Empire Through Indian Territory. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2009.
Van Hoeven, James W. “Salvation and Indian Removal.” The Reformed Review 39 (1986?), 255–70.
Van Zandt, Cynthia J. Brothers among Nations: The Pursuit of Intercultural Alliances in Early America, 1580–1660. New York: Oxford University Press, 2008.
Viola, Herman J. Diplomats in Buckskins: A History of Indian Delegations in Washington City. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1981.
Vipperman, Carl J. “The Bungled Treaty of New Echota: The Failure of Cherokee Removal, 1836–1838.” Georgia Historical Quarterly 78 (Fall 1989), 540–58.
Volwiler, Albert T. George Croghan and the Westward Movement, 1741–1782. Cleveland: Arthur H. Clark Co., 1926.
Wainwright, Nicholas B. George Croghan: Wilderness Diplomat. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1959.
Watson, Blake A. Buying America from the Indians: Johnson v. McIntosh and the History of Native Land Rights. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2012.
Weeks, Charles A. Paths to a Middle Ground: The Diplomacy of Natchez, Boukfouka, Nogales, and San Fernando de las Barrancas, 1791–1795. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2005.
White, Jerry P., Erik Anderson, Jean-Pierre Morin, and Dan Beavon, eds. Aboriginal Policy Research. Vol. 7: A History of Treaties and Policies. Toronto: Thompson Educational Publishing, 2010.
White, Richard. The Middle Ground: Indians, Empires and Republics in the Great Lakes Region, 1650–1815. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991.
Wilkins, Thurman. Cherokee Tragedy: The Ridge Family and the Decimation of a People. 1970; reprint, Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1986.
Wilkinson, Charles F. American Indians, Time, and the Law. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1987.
Williams, Robert A., Jr. The American Indian in Western Legal Thought: The Discourses of Conquest. New York: Oxford University Press, 1990.
Williams, Robert A., Jr. Linking Arms Together: American Indian Treaty Visions of Law and Peace, 1600–1800. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997.
Witgen, Michael. “The Rituals of Possession: Native Identity and the Invention of Empire in Seventeenth-Century Western North America.” Ethnohistory 45 (Fall 2007), 639–68.
Wolfe, Patrick. “After the Frontier: Separation and Absorption in US Indian Policy,” Settler Colonial Studies, 1 (2011), 13–51.
Wolfe, Patrick. “Against the Intentional Fallacy: Logocentrism and Continuity in the Rhetoric of Indian Dispossession,” American Indian Culture and Research Journal, 36, no. 1 (2012), 9–12.
Wonderley, Anthony. “Good Peter’s Narrative of Several Transactions Respecting Indian Lands: An Oneida View of Dispossession, 1785–1788.” New York History 84 (2003), 237–73.
Worcester, Donald E., ed. Forked Tongues and Broken Treaties. Caldwell, Idaho: Caxton Printers, 1975.
Worcester, Donald E., ed. “Satanta.” In American Indian Leaders: Studies in Diversity, ed. R. David Edmunds, 107–30. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1980.
Wright, J. Leitch, Jr. “The Creek-American Treaty of 1790: Alexander McGillivray and The Diplomacy of The Old Southwest.” Georgia Historical Quarterly 51 (December 1967), 379–400.
Wroth, Lawrence C. “The Indian Treaty as Literature.” Yale Review 17 (1928), 749–66.
Wunder, John R. “Indigenous Colonial Treaties of North America in Comparative Perspective.” In Reconfigurations of Native North America: An Anthology of New Perspectives, ed. John R. Wunder and Kurt E. Kinbacher, 13–31. Lubbock: Texas Tech University Press, 2009.
Wunder, John R. “No More Treaties: The Resolution of 1871 and the Alteration of Indian Rights to Their Homelands.” In Working the Range: Essays on the History of Western Land Management and the Environment, ed. John R. Wunder, 39–56. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1985.
Wunder, John R. “‘That No Thorn Will Pierce Our Friendship’: The Ute-Comanche Treaty of 1786.” Western Historical Quarterly 42 (Spring 2011), 5–27.
{ INDEX }
Note: Page numbers in italic indicate figures. Page numbers followed by an ‘n’ indicate endnotes.
ABCFM (American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions), 125, 127, 131, 135, 139
Abenakis, 34, 47
Abraham (Little Abraham) (Tayorheasere, Teyarhasere, Tyorhansera, Tigoransera, Teirhenshsere) (Mohawk)
Albany conference (1775) and, 92
death of, 93
Fort Stanwix Treaty and, 68, 70, 71, 72, 77, 248
W. Johnson and, 65, 73, 85
on settlers, 89
Adair, James, 17
Adams, John, 99
Adams, John Quincy, 147
Adams, Margaret (Fitzpatrick) (Wilmarth) (Wilmott) (Walking Woman) (Arapaho), 184, 197, 198, 210
adoptions, 13, 18, 47–48. see also kinship
agriculture
Blackfeet and, 180
Cherokees and, 122–23, 146, 233
Cheyennes and, 212, 235
“civilization” and, 114
Fort Laramie Treaty and, 175, 226
Little Raven on, 210
Medicine Lodge Treaty and, 10, 199, 201, 202, 203, 204, 209, 214, 234
in text of Medicine Lodge Treaty, 266, 267, 268, 270–71, 273, 277, 278, 279, 280, 282
New Echota Treaty and, 253
reservations and, 181
Ridges and, 128
Tananaica on, 222
Texas and, 165
the West and, 117, 173
women and, 18
AIM (American Indian Movement), 239
Alabama, 98, 115,
117, 122, 131, 268
Albany Congress (1754), 24, 44–45, 65, 67
alcohol. see liquor
Algonquian languages, 42, 175, 196
Algonquins, 40
allegiances, 21, 49
alliances
captive and, 47
Chain of Friendship and, 24
Cherokees and, 156, 162
Delawares and, 97
French and Indian, 1, 4, 57, 165
gifts and, 19–20
interpreters and, 31–32
Iroquois and, 2, 81, 85, 91
W. Johnson and, 51, 71
kinship and, 12–13
Lewis and Clark and, 164–65, 168
Plains Indians and, 165, 171–72
Revolutionary War and, 92, 96
Spaniards and, 98
trade and, 165, 167
treaties and, 48, 84, 98, 173, 174
US Civil War and, 161, 162
wampum and, 30, 71
writing and, 35
allotments, 79, 202, 234–37
“amalgamation,” 138
American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions (ABCFM), 125, 127, 131, 135, 139
American Indian Movement (AIM), 239
Americans. see settlers, American; entries beginning US …
Amherst, Jeffery, 21–22, 54
annexation act of 1877, 241
annuities. see also appropriations
Blackfoot peace conference and, 180
Cherokees and, 138
corruption and, 230
Fort Laramie Treaty, 175, 176
Fort Stanwix Treaty and, 84
Harrison and, 116
Little Arkansas Treaty and, 183, 184
Medicine Lodge Treaty and, 201, 202, 205, 208, 210, 214, 216
in text of Medicine Lodge Treaty, 265, 269, 274, 276, 280
New Echota Treaty and, 255, 256, 260
Potawatomis and, 139
US Congress and, 106
Anza, Juan Bautista de, 21, 166
Apaches. see also Plains Indians; individual Apaches
additional compensation, 238
attacks south of Rio Grande, 172
Cheyennes and, 171
Fort Atkinson Treaty and, 176
Jerome Commission and, 235–36, 237
Little Arkansas Treaty and, 183
Medicine Lodge Treaty and, 182, 193, 198
New Mexico and, 166
reservations, 163, 205, 214, 215
Spain and, 166
Texas and, 216
US Indian Peace Commission and, 186
violence of, 220
Apiatan (Kiowa), 236
Appalachian Mountains, 54, 55, 81
appropriations, 214, 230–31, 269, 271, 280, 282. see also annuities
Arapahos. see also Plains Indians; individual Arapahos
alliances, 171
Black Kettle and, 183
Cheyennes and, 209–10
Fort Laramie Treaty and, 175, 226
Fort Wise Treaty and, 176
gifts from, 206
Jerome Commission and, 235
Little Arkansas Treaty and, 183, 184
Medicine Lodge Treaty and, 182, 189, 193, 194, 196, 209
as prisoners, 223
Red Cloud War and, 184–85
reservations, 163, 215, 217, 219
Sheridan and, 219
US Indian Peace Commission and, 186
violence of, 217, 218
Arbuckle, Matthew, 155, 157
Arikaras, 167, 170, 172, 175. see also Plains Indians
Arizona, 227
Arizona Tax Commission, Warren Trading Post Co. v. (1965), 239–40
Arkansas, 33–34, 118, 158, 159, 169
Arkansas River Valley, 171, 201
“Articles of Government” (Cherokees), 124
artists, 224
Ash Hollow (Nebraska), 176
Assaryquoa (Assaraquoa) (long knife) (sword), 25, 29
assimilation, 123, 224, 234
Assiniboines, 175. see also Plains Indians
Athapaskan language, 197
Athens Courier (newspaper), 148
Atkin, Edmond, 14
Atkinson, Henry, 170, 171
Attakullakulla (Little Carpenter) (Cherokee), 63, 81, 91
Augooshaway (Egushawa) (Gushgushagwa) (Ottawa), 106, 113, 244
Augur, Christopher, 187, 187, 194, 221, 226, 229
Aupaumut, Hendrick (Mahican), 25, 108
Australia, 243
authority. see also legality; sovereignty
Botetort and, 81
British, 85
Cherokee land and, 143
Cherokee Nation and, 145, 155, 158, 249, 250
Indian, 17, 22, 34, 48, 60, 108, 239
Iroquois, 56, 62, 77, 80, 85, 98
W. Johnson and, 63, 79, 80
Navajos and, 239
Peace Commission and, 185
traders and, 9, 88
treaties and, 231
Treaty Party and, 136, 138
US government, 4, 24, 98, 107, 132, 164, 230, 237–38
autonomy of bands, 120
Bannocks, 227
Bao (Cat) (Having Horns) (Kiowa), 196
Barker, Joanne, 333n37
Barnitz, Alfred, 212
Barsh, Russell, 242
Bartram, John, 7, 29
Battle of Beecher’s Island (1868), 218
Battle of Devil’s Hole (1763), 54
Battle of Fallen Timbers (1794), 110
Battle of Fort Niagara (1759), 54, 68
Battle of Horseshoe Bend (Tohopeka) (1814), 117, 118, 123
Battle of Lake George (1755), 51
Battle of Monongahela (1755), 57
Battle of Neches River (1839), 156
Battle of Oriskany (1777), 93
Battle of Point Pleasant, 90
Battle of Summit Springs (1869), 219
Battle of the Little Bighorn (1876), 233
Battle of the Rosebud (1876), 233
Battle of the Washita (1868), 215
Battle of Tohopeka (Horseshoe Bend) (1814), 117, 118, 123
Baynton, John, 58, 60, 61, 66
Baynton, Wharton, and Morgan, 96
Beech Tree (Oneyanha) (Oneida), 101
Bell, John, 157
Bell, Sarah Caroline (Watie), 157, 162, 163
Bent, Charles, 184
Bent, Charley, 189, 190, 196, 198
Bent, George
Cheyennes and, 189, 212, 219
Custer’s raid and, 218
as interpreter, 219
Jerome Commission and, 235
life history, 190, 332n26
Medicine Lodge Treaty and, 196, 198, 211
photo, 190
Bent, Julia (Guerrier), 196, 197, 198
Bent, Robert, 190
Bent, William, 184, 189, 190, 196
Bent, Yellow Woman (Cheyenne), 184
Benton, Hart, 147
Biard, Pierre, 22
Big Tree (Seneca), 100–101, 220, 221, 223, 236
Bird Chief (Arapaho), 232
Black, Hugo, 239
Black Beaver (Delaware), 196
Black Buffalo (Brulé), 167
Black Eagle (Kiowa), 194, 212
Black Elk (Oglala Lakota), 35
Blackfeet, 176, 179–80, 197. see also Plains Indians
Black Hawk (Oglala), 175
Black Hawk (Sauk), 115
Black Hills (SD), 226, 233–34, 240–41
Black Hoof (Shawnee), 113
Black Kettle (Cheyenne)
Custer and, 218
death of, 218
Dog Soldiers and, 195
kin, 190
Medicine Lodge Treaty and, 193, 198, 205, 216
raids of, 183
Sand Creek massacre and, 177
Sheridan and, 218
Blacksnake (Seneca), 68
Bloody Fellow (Cherokee), 108
Blount, William, 104, 108
Blue Jacket (Shawnee), 113
Board of Trade (Britain), 56, 58, 60, 61, 62, 63, 81, 82
Bogy, Charles, 184
Boldt, George, 240
Boone, Daniel, 86–87
Boone, James, 87
Bosque Redondo (NM), 227
Botetort, Lord, 81
Boudinot, Delight, 154
Boudinot, Elias (Galagina) (Buck Watie) (Cherokee). see also Cherokee Phoenix (newspaper); Treaty Party
E. Butler on, 153
on Corn Tassel, 134
death penalty and, 9, 154
image, 207
Jackson and, 143
on leadership, 149
namesake of, 125
on New Echota Treaty, 147
New Echota Treaty and, 9, 144, 154
on removal, 136, 137–38
Ross on, 159
US Civil War and, 161–62
US government and, 159
wives and children, 126–27, 147, 162, 163
Boudinot, Elias Cornelius, 162–63, 233
boundaries. see also fences; reservations; specific treaties
AIM and, 239
Croghan and, 66
Fort Laramie Treaty and, 175
Fort Stanwix Treaty and, 8, 9, 49–65, 71–77, 78, 80–82, 83, 84, 86, 87, 88, 90, 95, 245, 247, 251
Gage on, 80–81
Greenville Treaty and, 113
Hard Labor Treaty and, 81
Indian wars and, 99
indigenous, 12
W. Johnson and, 62–63, 71–73, 76
kinship and, 46–47
Medicine Lodge Treaty and, 221, 277
Peace of Paris (1763) and, 54
Prairie du Chien Treaty and, 170
resistance to, 120
Revolutionary War and, 122
Shawnees and, 103, 108
Tecumseh and, 116
US expansion and, 165, 172, 173, 174
US government and, 98, 99, 100, 104, 105, 107, 109, 174
wars and, 170
Bouquet, Henry, 47
Bowles (Duwali) (Cherokee), 156
Bozeman Trail, 184–85, 226, 227
Braddock, Edward, 57
Bradford, William, 13–14, 19–20
Brainerd mission, 125
Brant, Joseph (Mohawk), 51–52, 57, 72, 92, 93, 108
Brant, Molly (Mary), 19, 51, 52, 57
Bray, Kingsley, 175
bribery, 107, 108, 115, 119, 123, 125, 139–40
Bridger, Jim, 174–75
Britain and the British. see also Irish traders; Paris, Peace of (1763, 1783); Privy Council (Britain); Treaty of Fort Stanwix (1768)
Cherokees and, 122
colonial era and, 4
Covenant Chain and, 24
Fort Stanwix Treaty and, 49, 77–78, 80
France and, 20, 53, 76
Indian culture and, 14
Iroquois and, 49–50, 53, 54, 85–86
Pen and Ink Witchcraft Page 53