by Benn Steil
New York Times. “Gilbert Says the ERP Needs Christians’ Aid.” February 9, 1948.
New York Times. “ASPCA Suggests ERP Project for Animals; Society Solicits Funds for Pets Abroad.” February 18, 1948.
New York Times. “Attlee Thanks Truman.” April 6, 1948.
New York Times. “Our Roving Ambassador Leaving for France.” June 2, 1948.
New York Times. “Italian Communists to Fight Marshall Plan, Says Togliatti.” June 27, 1948.
New York Times. “Hoffman to Go Abroad.” July 13, 1948.
New York Times. “Oil Company Denies Soviet Map Charge.” September 26, 1948.
New York Times. “Russian Spurs U.N.: Alleges Forrestal, Other Officials Are Planning Assault on Soviet.” September 26, 1948.
New York Times. “The Map That Made Vyshinsky See Red.” October 3, 1948.
New York Times. “Victory in Berlin.” May 5, 1949.
New York Times. “First Berlin Train from West Sealed.” May 12, 1949.
New York Times. “Speeches of Marshall and Truman Stressing Need for Unity.” June 6, 1949.
New York Times. “Kennan Maps Rest from U.S. Duties.” December 11, 1949.
New York Times. “Statement by Hoffman to the Senate-House Group on Operation of the Marshall Plan.” February 22, 1950.
New York Times. “Arthur H. Vandenberg.” April 22, 1951.
New York Times. “Diplomacy Easy the Caffery Way.” February 20, 1955.
New York Times. “Defense His Specialty: Robert Abercrombie Lovett.” February 29, 1960.
New York Times. “Gen. Bedell Smith Is Dead in Capital.” August 10, 1961.
New York Times. “William L. Clayton Dead at 86; Once Undersecretary of State: Started as Stenographer.” February 9, 1966.
New York Times. “Robert Murphy, Career Diplomat, Dies.” January 10, 1978.
New York Times. “Marshall Vasily Chuikov, 82, Dies; Commanded Stalingrad’s Defense.” March 20, 1982.
New York Times. “Berlin Borderguards Stunned by News.” November 10, 1989.
New York Times. “Another Voice on German Role.” June 15, 1990.
New York Times Magazine. “Europe: The New Dark Continent.” March 18, 1945.
New York Times Magazine. “No.1 Envoy to Europe.” September 21, 1947.
Niculae, Vlad, Srijan Kumar, Jordan Boyd-Graber, and Cristian Danescu-Niculescu-Mizil. “Linguistic Harbingers of Betrayal: A Case Study on an Online Strategy Game.” Proceedings of the Association of Computational Linguistics. June 2015. http://vene.ro/betrayal/niculae15betrayal.pdf.
Norman, Laurence, and Julian E. Barnes. “EU Pushes Deeper Defense Cooperation.” Wall Street Journal. September 13, 2016.
Nover, Barnet. “It’s Up to Us: Investing in World Freedom.” Washington Post. March 13, 1947.
———. “Marshall vs. Moscow.” Washington Post. September 28, 1947.
Office of the Historian, U.S. House of Representatives. “Power of the Purse.” http://history.house.gov/Institution/Origins-Development/Power-of-the-Purse/.
Office of the Historian, U.S. State Department. “Secretary of State John Hay and the Open Door in China, 1899–1900.” https://history.state.gov/milestones/1899-1913/hay-and-china.
Orwell, George. “You and the Atomic Bomb.” Tribune (London). October 19, 1945.
Oser, Alan S. “Ex-Gov. Averell Harriman, Adviser to 4 Presidents, Dies.” New York Times. July 27, 1986.
Oweis, Khaled Yacoub. “Mideast Power Brokers Call for ‘Marshall Plan’ After Unrest.” Reuters. October 22, 2011.
Page, Jeremy. “China Sees Itself at Center of New Asian Order.” Wall Street Journal. November 9, 2014.
Parrish, Scott D. “The Turn Toward Confrontation: The Soviet Reaction to the Marshall Plan, 1947.” Cold War International History Project Working Paper Series. No. 7. Washington, DC: Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, March 1994.
Pearson, Drew. “The Washington Merry-Go-Round.” Washington Post. December 6, 1945.
———. “The Washington Merry-Go-Round.” Washington Post. March 3, 1947.
———. “South Needs ‘Marshall Plan’.” Washington Post. December 18, 1947.
Pechatnov, Vladimir O. “The Big Three After World War II: New Documents on Soviet Thinking About Post War Relations with the United States and Great Britain.” Cold War International History Project Working Paper Series. No. 13. Washington, DC: Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, May 1995.
Peel, Quentin. “Germans Revive Greek Marshall Plan Idea.” Financial Times. February 22, 2012.
Perlmutter, Amos, and Ted Galen Carpenter. “NATO’s Expensive Trip East: The Folly of Enlargement.” Foreign Affairs. January/February 1998.
Phillips, Cabell. “Congressional Tours Big Aid to Marshall Plan.” New York Times. October 19, 1947.
Pons, Silvio. “Stalin, Togliatti, and the Origins of the Cold War in Europe.” Journal of Cold War Studies. Vol. 3, No. 2 (Spring 2001): 3–27.
Raack, R. C. “Stalin Plans His Post-War Germany.” Journal of Contemporary History. Vol. 28, No. 1 (January 1993): 53–73.
Raine, Fernande Scheid. “Stalin and the Creation of the Azerbaijan Democratic Party in Iran, 1945.” Cold War History, Vol. 2, No. 1 (October 2001): 1–38.
Rapoza, Kenneth. “Russia ‘Will Never’ Attack a NATO Country, Unless Provoked.” Forbes. June 6, 2016.
Raymond, Jack. “Taber Opposes Aid to Europe at Once.” New York Times. October 4, 1947.
———. “German Fate Tied to Marshall Plan.” New York Times. November 17, 1947.
———. “Clay Declares U.S. Won’t Quit Berlin Short of Warfare . . .” New York Times. June 25, 1948.
———. “ECA Weighs Aiding German Refugees: Influx of Millions in West Area Creates Extremely Critical Economic Situation.” New York Times. May 29, 1949.
Raymont, Henry. “Leaders’ Papers Reveal a Light Spirit of Yalta.” New York Times. May 21, 1972.
Reedy, Tom. “Ruthless Stalin Favorite Is New Dictator of East Germany.” Washington Post. August 27, 1950.
Reinhart, Carmen M., and Kenneth S. Rogoff. “From Financial Crash to Debt Crisis.” NBER Working Paper Series. No. 15795 (March 2010).
Reston, James. “The No. 1 No. 2 Man in Washington.” New York Times Magazine. August 25, 1946.
———. “U.S. Weighs Aid to Greece of 350 Millions in 3 Years.” New York Times. March 1, 1947.
———. “Truman Plans Dual Policy to Meet Russian Expansion.” New York Times. March 11, 1947.
———. “Bewildered Congress Faces World Leadership Decision.” New York Times. March 14, 1947.
———. “The Big Question: What Will Our World Role Be?” New York Times. March 16, 1947.
———. “U.S. Studies Shift of Help to Europe as a Unit in Crisis.” New York Times. May 25, 1947.
———. “Comintern Move Held Knell of East-West Unity.” New York Times. October 7, 1947.
———. “Comintern Move Is Spur to the Marshall Plan.” New York Times. October 12, 1947.
———. “U.S. Frets Over de Gaulle: Fears a Man on Horseback.” New York Times. October 21, 1947.
———. “ ‘Freedomtern’ Suggested to Rally Democracies.” New York Times. October 26, 1947.
———. “Antipathy to Aid Fades in Congress.” New York Times. November 6, 1947.
———. “Democrats Let Vandenberg Carry Load in Aid Debate.” New York Times. November 25, 1947.
———. “Capital Fears Communists May Ruin Europe Aid Plan.” New York Times. December 5, 1947.
———. “Actual Studies in Europe Sway Views of Congress.” New York Times. December 9, 1947.
———. “Congress Now Sees Need to Combat False Reports.” New York Times. December 11, 1947.
———. “Vandenberg Wants a National Debate on Marshall Plan.” December 22, 1947.
———. “ERP Debate Poses a Challenge for America.” New York Times. January 4, 1948.
> ———. “Marshall Always Patient, but Adamant on His Plan.” New York Times. January 9, 1948.
———. “Kremlin, as Usual, Comes to the Rescue of ERP.” New York Times. January 18, 1948.
———. “Baruch Asserts Revival of Europe Rests on Unity.” New York Times. January 20, 1948.
———. “U.S. Confronting Problem of Joining Western Bloc.” New York Times. February 6, 1948.
———. “Moves by Vandenberg Speed Marshall Plan.” New York Times. February 22, 1948.
———. “Red Threat Spurs Movement for Western Security Pact.” New York Times. February 27, 1948.
———. “Basic Decision Facing U.S. Foreign Policy.” New York Times. March 14, 1948.
———. “Crises in Europe Present Moral Problems for U.S.” New York Times. March 23, 1948.
———. “Economic War Is Feared by the State Department.” New York Times. March 26, 1948.
———. “Events Spotlight Vandenberg’s Dual Role.” New York Times. March 28, 1948.
———. “ERP Invitation to Spain Poses Diplomats’ Dilemma.” New York Times. March 31, 1948.
———. “Position Clarified: President Acts to Avoid Misconceptions, Denies Hostility to Soviet.” New York Times. May 12, 1948.
———. “U.S. Plan Weighed: Big 3 Would Withdraw to Ports in the North Under Proposal.” New York Times. May 12, 1949.
Rettman, Andrew. “Merkel: Russia Cannot Veto EU Expansion.” EUobserver. November 17, 2014. https://euobserver.com/foreign/126540.
Reynolds, David. “The European Response: Primacy of Politics.” Foreign Affairs. May/June 1997.
Reynolds, Genevieve. “Charges Marshall Plan Opponents Follow Red Line.” Washington Post. January 17, 1948.
Ritschl, Albrecht. “Germany, Greece and the Marshall Plan.” The Economist. June 15, 2012.
———. “Germany, Greece and the Marshall Plan, Another Riposte.” The Economist. June 25, 2012.
Roberts, Chalmers M. “Four Presidents Lead Bohlen to Paris Post.” Washington Post. September 2, 1962.
———. “Robert D. Murphy: Loyal Soldier of the Cold War.” Washington Post. February 11, 1978.
Roberts, Geoffrey. “Litvinov’s Lost Peace, 1941–1946.” Journal of Cold War Studies. Vol. 4, No. 2 (Spring 2002): 23–54.
Roberts, Gregory. “Moscow and the Marshall Plan.” Europe-Asia Studies. Vol. 46, No. 8 (1994): 1371–86.
Ross, Albion. “Czech Sees Gains in Marshall Plan.” New York Times. January 4, 1948.
———. “Czech Socialists Regret Aid Stand.” New York Times. January 18, 1948.
Samuels, David. “One Last Interview.” Tablet Magazine. September 29, 2016. http://www.tabletmag.com/jewish-news-and-politics/214621/one-last-interview.
Sanders, Katie. “Did Vladimir Putin Call the Breakup of the USSR ‘the Greatest Geopolitical Tragedy of the 20th Century?’ ” Politifact.com. March 6, 2014.
http://www.politifact.com/punditfact/statements/2014/mar/06/john-bolton/did-vladimir-putin-call-breakup-ussr-greatest-geop/.
Sapp, Steven P. “Jefferson Caffery, Cold War Diplomat: American-French Relations, 1944–49,” Louisiana History: The Journal of the Louisiana Historical Association. Vol. 23, No. 2 (1982).
Sedgwick, A. C. “Athens Bomb Kills Minister; Red Plot on Cabinet Alleged.” New York Times. May 2, 1948.
Sestanovich, Stephen. “Could It Have Been Otherwise?” The American Interest. Vol. 10, No. 5 (April 14, 2015).
Shchetko, Nick, and Alan Cullison. “Ukraine Ends ‘Nonaligned’ Status, Earning Quick Rebuke from Russia.” Wall Street Journal. December 23, 2014.
Shlapak, David A., and Michael Johnson. “Reinforcing Deterrence on NATO’s Eastern Flank: Wargaming the Defense of the Baltics.” Research Reports. Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation, 2016. http://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/research_reports/RR1200/RR1253/RAND_RR1253.pdf.
Simms, William Phillip. “Truman Doctrine.” Washington Daily News. March 14, 1947.
Simon, Zoltan. “Orban Says He Seeks to End Liberal Democracy in Hungary.” Bloomberg. July 28, 2014. https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2014-07-28/orban-says-he-seeks-to-end-liberal-democracy-in-hungary.
Siracusa, Joseph M. “The Meaning of Tolstoy: Churchill, Stalin, and the Balkans, Moscow, October 1944.” Diplomatic History. Vol. 3, No. 4 (October 1979): 443–63.
Smith, Jean Edward. “General Clay and the Russians: A Continuation of the Wartime Alliance in Germany, 1945–1948.” Virginia Quarterly. Vol. 64, No. 1 (Winter 1988): 20–36.
Soros, George. “A Tragic, Historical Mistake by the Germans.” Spiegel Online. June 26, 2012.
Steel, Ronald. “A Self-Made Man.” New York Review of Books. August 13, 1992.
———. “Playing Loose with History.” New York Times. May 26, 1997.
Steil, Benn. “Red White: Why a Founding Father of Postwar Capitalism Spied for the Soviets.” Foreign Affairs. March/April 2013.
Steinkopf, Alvin J. “Europeans Facing Winter of Hunger.” Washington Post. September 28, 1947.
Stimson, Henry. “The Challenge to Americans.” Foreign Affairs. October 1947.
Stivers, William. “The Incomplete Blockade: Soviet Zone Supply of West Berlin, 1948–49.” Diplomatic History. Vol. 21, No. 4 (Fall 1997): 569–602.
Stokes, Bruce. “Views of NATO and Its Role Are Mixed in U.S.; Other Member Nations.” Pew Research Center. March 18, 2016. http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2016/03/28/views-of-nato-and-its-role-are-mixed-in-u-s-other-member-nations/.
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Sulzberger, C. L. “British Declare ‘Protocol M’ Fake; Red ‘Plot’ in Ruhr Ruse by German.” New York Times. April 11, 1948.
Takhnenko, Galina. “Anatomy of a Political Decision: Notes on the Marshall Plan.” International Affairs [Moscow]. July 1992.
Taylor, A. J. P. “The European Revolution.” The Listener. November 22, 1945.
Tcherneva, Pavlina. “A Global Marshall Plan for Joblessness?” New Economic Perspectives. May 12, 2016. http://neweconomicperspectives.org/2016/05/global-marshall-plan-joblessness.html.
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Time. “The Year of Decision.” January 5, 1948.
Time. “THE CONGRESS: Fateful Calendar.” January 12, 1948.
Time. “The Best Bargain the American People Ever Bought.” April 11, 1949.
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Tower, Samuel A. “Vandenberg Acts to Speed ERP Vote, Sets March 15 Goal.” New York Times. February 29, 1948.
Troianovski, Anton, and Matthew Karnitsching. “Merkel Rival Kicks Off Campaign, Hits Out at Austerity, Social Issues.” Wall Street Journal. July 31, 2013.
Trussell, C. P. “Congress Is Solemn; Prepares to Consider Bills After Hearing the President Gravely.” New York Times. March 13, 1947.
———. “Senate Votes 83–6 for Interim Help to Three Nations.” New York Times. December 2, 1947.
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Waggoner, Walter H. “Congress Session Meets Opposition.” New York Times. September 5, 1947.
Wall Street Journal. “The Price of E.R.P.” February 3, 1948.
Wall Street Journal. “Devaluation Necessary in Some ERP Countries, Snyder Says: He Rejects a Currency Conference.” February 26, 1948.
> Wall Street Journal. “Senate Approves Ban on Exports to Russia of Goods Scarce for ERP.” March 9, 1948.
Wall Street Journal. “China’s Marshall Plan.” November 12, 2014.
Walz, Jay. “House Vote Looms This Week on Aid; Revisions Doubted.” New York Times. March 29, 1948.
Warburg, James P. “Report on Germany.” The New Statesman and Nation. Vol. 32 (August 10, 1946).
Warren, Lansing. “Ramadier Wins Confidence Vote; Backs Marshall Plan in Entirety.” New York Times. July 5, 1947.
Warren, Lansing. “Friendship Cargo Hailed by France.” New York Times. December 18, 1947.
———. “Bidault and Bevin Give Pledge to U.S.” New York Times. April 6, 1948.
———. “Delay on Germany Explained in Paris.” New York Times. June 14, 1948.
———. “French Assembly Accepts Accords on West Germany: Gives Approval, 297–289 . . .” New York Times. June 17, 1948.
Washington Post. “Civil Administrator.” March 31, 1945.
Washington Post. “Yugoslavs Shot Up Plane, Envoy Says.” August 19, 1946.
Washington Post. “Roots of the Truman Doctrine.” March 16, 1947.
Washington Post. “Ferguson Prefers Loans to Foreign Businesses.” September 24, 1947.
Washington Post. “Javits Urges Caution in Marshall Aid Plan.” October 5, 1947.
Washington Post. “Dodd Urges Mothers to Aid in Implementing Foreign Policy.” October 21, 1947.
Washington Post. “Marshall Plan Rechristened as ‘Recovery.’ ” November 7, 1947.
Washington Post. “Ready for Congress.” November 9, 1947.
Washington Post. “Majority Wants U.S. to Stop Shipment of Goods to Russia.” December 12, 1947.
Washington Post. “Marshall Plan Called ‘World WPA.’ ” January 11, 1948.
Washington Post. “Russia Warned Bluntly by Bevin That Its Policy Will Lead to War.” January 23, 1948.
Washington Post. “Truman Signs Bill to Bolster ‘Voice’ of U.S.” January 28, 1948.
Washington Post. “End Cold War, Wallace Urges U.S., Russia.” May 12, 1948.
Washington Post. “Bidault May Quit Post in 6-Power Fight.” June 13, 1948.
Washington Post. “Averell Delights Ladies.” August 13, 1956.