by Benn Steil
83 Pogue IV (1987:209–10).
84 Berger (January 2, 1974); Daniel (July 24, 1955); Roberts (September 2, 1962).
85 Jones (1955:254–55); Bohlen (1973:263); Cray (1990 [2000]:612); Behrman (2007:66).
86 Bland (1991:559).
87 Bland (1991:559).
88 Acacia (2009:71).
89 Miall (May 4, 1961); Jones (1955:255–56); Acheson (1969:264); Mee (1984:99–100); Isaacson and Thomas (1986 [2012]:413).
90 The speech was actually delivered after lunch, at a ceremony bestowing honorary degrees, and not at the commencement ceremonies in the morning. Audio can be heard here: http://marshallfoundation.org/marshall/the-marshall-plan/marshall-plan-speech/ (“The Marshall Plan Speech”).
91 Acheson (1969:233).
92 Bohlen (1973:265).
93 Reynolds (May/June 1997).
94 Isaacson and Thomas (1986 [2012]:413).
95 Marshall, interview with Harry B. Price, February 18, 1953, Folder: “January–June, 1953,” Box 1, Oral History Interview File, Price Papers, Truman Library.
96 Norwich (2005:439).
97 Crowder (2015:190).
98 New Times (May 16, 1947:1). See also the account of Stalin’s discussions at the Moscow Council of Foreign Ministers meetings with perennial Republican presidential candidate Harold Stassen in Parrish (March 1994:9–11).
99 Parrish (March 1994:12–13).
CHAPTER 5: TRAP
1 Molotov underlined more material than is indicated here; I have abbreviated it. “Russian translation of Marshall’s statement at Harvard, June 5,” AVP RF, Fond 06, op. 9, P. 18, file 209, pp. 1–5; Parrish (March 1994:14).
2 “Cable of the Soviet Ambassador in the USA N. V. Novikov to the Minister of Foreign Affairs of the USSR V. M. Molotov on the ‘Marshall Plan,’ ” June 9, 1947, AVP RF, Fond 059, op. 18, P. 39, file 250, pp. 207–9, published in Soviet-American Relations 1945–1948: 429–30; Leffler and Painter (1994 [2005]:74); Holloway (1994:254); Parrish (March 1994:13).
3 Caffery to Marshall, June 18, 1947, in FRUS, 1947, III: 259–60.
4 “On the position of the governments of France, Belgium, Holland, and Luxembourg regarding the ‘Marshall Plan,’ ” AVP RF, Fond 046, op. 7, P. 126, file 48, pp. 2–8.
5 Molotov to Soviet ambassadors in Prague, Warsaw, and Belgrade, telegram, June 22, 1947, AVP RF, Fond 06, op. 9, P. 18, file 214, p. 19. Translation is Narinsky’s (March 1994).
6 Parrish (March 1994:19).
7 Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary Ambassador of the Republic of Poland in the USSR M. Nashkovsky to Molotov, Moscow, June 24, 1947, AVP RF, Fond 046, op. 7, P. 126, file 48, p. 20.
8 Behrman (2007:81).
9 Jan Masaryk to M. F. Bodrov, Soviet chargé d’affaires at the Soviet Embassy in Czechoslovakia, Prague, July 1, 1947, AVP RF, Fond 06, op. 9, P. 18, file 212, p. 11.
10 Ripka (1950:52); Heimann (2009:174).
11 Note of the Federal People’s Republic of Yugoslavia to the Government of the Soviet Union, June 26, 1947, AVP RF, Fond 06, op. 9, P. 18, file 212, pp. 8–9.
12 Pravda Ukraine, June 11, 1947, quoted in Pogue IV (1987:220).
13 Pravda, June 17, 1947, quoted in Behrman (2007:80–81).
14 Molotov’s draft of the instructions for the Soviet delegation at the Paris Conference, June 24, 1947, RGASPI, Fond 558, op. 11, file 211, pp. 21–23.
15 Parrish (March 1994:20); Novikov to Molotov, June 24, 1947, AVP RF, Fond 059, op. 18, P. 39, file 250, pp. 314–20.
16 Varga earned Stalin’s recognition by predicting the economic crisis of 1929, and then its end, but in 1947 fell under suspicion for his 1946 work The Changes in Capitalist Economy Following World War II, in which he analyzed Keynesian economics and concluded that government intervention had temporarily mitigated the “contradictions of capitalism.” The institute he directed was closed that same year; he was denounced for “ideological mistakes,” and then persecuted in the anti-cosmopolitans campaign. His manuscript criticizing the Soviet economic system, completed shortly before his death in 1964, would not be published until 1989. (I am indebted to Svetlana Chervonnaya for this material.)
17 Evgeny Varga, memorandum, “The Marshall Plan and the Economic Situation of the United States, June 24, 1947,” AVP RF, Fond 06, op. 9, P. 18, file 213, pp. 1–5; Narinsky (1994:108–9); Narinsky (March 1994:42–43).
18 Avery F. Peterson, “Memorandum of Conversation: Summary of First Meeting of Under Secretary Clayton and Ambassador with British Cabinet Members,” June 24, 1947, in FRUS, 1947, III: 269.
19 Caffery to Marshall, June 27, 1947, in FRUS, 1947, III: 296; Callender (June 27, 1947); Behrman (2007:84). Some sources suggest Molotov’s entourage numbered one hundred or more. See, for example, Watson (2005:230); Mommen (2011:164); Pechatnov and Edmondson (2001:126); and Reynolds (May/June 1997).
20 Judt (2005:88).
21 Molotov’s conversation with Bidault, June 26, 1947, AVP RF, Fond 06, op. 9, P. 1, file 22, p. 48.
22 Record of conversation between Molotov and Peterson, June 17, 1947, AVP RF, Fond 06, op. 9, P. 1, file 22, p. 9.
23 Bidault (1965 [1967]:152); Crowder (2015:188).
24 Bidault, statement at first session, June 17, 1947, in French Yellow Book, 1947: 25–32.
25 Molotov, statement at the second meeting, June 28, 1947, in French Yellow Book, 1947: 38–41.
26 Smith (1990:408–9).
27 Crowder (2015:211).
28 Warner (1994:103–4).
29 Interview with Acheson, Wire IV, July 9, 1953, Folder: “July 8–9, 1953,” Box 79, Princeton Seminars File, Acheson Papers, Truman Library: 10–11.
30 See Butler (2002:60).
31 Louis (1984:14); Warner (1994:105).
32 Warner (1994:106).
33 Bevin, speech, November 7, 1945, House of Commons Debates, Vol. 415, c. 1342; Warner (1994:106–7).
34 For an excellent contrasting of Bevin and Attlee, see Bew (2016).
35 Warner (1994:107–8).
36 Bevin, statement at the second meeting, June 28, 1947, in French Yellow Book, 1947: 45–46.
37 Narinsky (2002:279), citing Arkhiv Prezidenta Rossiiskoi Federatsii, Fond 3, op. 63, file 270, p. 55 (Narinsky saw this file, but it is currently off-limits).
38 Sudoplatov (1994:231).
39 Narinsky (2002:279–80); Narinsky (1993:19); Narinsky (1995:177); Narinsky (1997:54-89), citing as his source Arkhiv Prezidenta Rossiiskoi Federatsii, Fond 03, op. 63, file 270, pp. 59–60—a Politburo Special File that is currently off limits; Sudoplatov (1994:231–32); Plokhy (2010:353). I am indebted to Svetlana Chervonnaya for her explanation of the Kremlin message-delivery and cabling process.
40 G. Arkadiev to Molotov, “Comments on Bevin’s proposals,” June 30, 1947, AVP RF, Fond 06, op. 9, P. 18, file 213, pp. 13–14; Pechatnov and Edmondson (2001:126–27).
41 Acheson, interview with Harry B. Price on October 20, 1953, reprinted in Price (1955:28).
42 Narinsky (March 1994:46), citing Molotov to Moscow, telegram, June 30, 1947, Arkhiv Prezidenta Rossiiskoi Federatsii, Fond 3, op. 63, file 270, pp. 64–65. Similar translation in French Yellow Book, 1947: 49–50.
43 Caffery to Marshall, July 1, 1947, in FRUS, 1947, III: 301–2; Mastny in Bohemia Band (1991:140).
44 Narinsky (March 1994:47), citing Molotov to Stalin, cipher telegram, July 1, 1947, Arkhiv Prezidenta Rossiiskoi Federatsii, Fond 3, op. 63, file 270, p. 71.
45 Bidault, statement at the fourth meeting, July 1, 1947, in French Yellow Book, 1947: 51–52.
46 Narinsky (2002:281); Di Biagio (1994:63, 31).
47 Zubok and Pleshakov (1996:106); Chuev (1993:61).
48 Djilas (1983:126–27).
49 Bullock (1983:422).
50 Molotov, statement at the fifth meeting, July 2, 1947, in French Yellow Book, 1947: 58–61.
51 Bidault, statement at the fifth meeting, July 2, 1947, in French Yellow Book, 1947: 62–65.
52 Douglas to Marshall, July 3, 1947, in FRUS, 194
7, III: 306–7.
53 McCullough (1992:565). McCullough provides no source for the quote, though it appears in other secondary sources such as Truman (1972:354).
54 Isaacson and Thomas (1986 [2012]:415).
55 Harriman, interview with Harry B. Price, October 1, 1952, Folder: “August–October, 1952,” Box 1, Oral History Interview File, Price Papers, Truman Library.
56 Isaacson and Thomas (1986 [2012]:415).
57 Narinsky (2002:281); Di Biagio (1994:123).
58 Narinsky (1994:109); Fonds 735-4, Carton AP-80, Private Archives of M. Georges Bidault, Archives Nationales: 5–6.
59 Hoffman, interview with Harry B. Price, January 28, 1953, Folder: “January–June, 1953,” Box 1, Oral History Interview File, Price Papers, Truman Library.
60 Acheson (1969:646).
61 Hoffmann and Maier (1984:24).
62 Lockett (August 17, 1947); New York Times (February 29, 1960); Barnes (May 8, 1986).
63 Joint French-British communiqué, July 3, 1947, in French Yellow Book, 1947: 69; Callender (July 4, 1947).
64 Caffery to Marshall, July 3, 1947, in FRUS, 1947, III: 308–9.
65 Warren (July 5, 1947).
66 Joseph E. Jacobs to Marshall, July 4, 1947, in FRUS, 1947, VI: 688–89; Joseph E. Jacobs to Marshall, July 8, 1947, in FRUS, 1947, VI: 695–96; John R. Hodge to Marshall, July 10, 1947, in FRUS, 1947, VI: 697–700; International Organization (February 1948:152–53); Cho (1967:148).
67 Telegram of the CC [Central Committee] of the VCP (b) [All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks)] to Comrades Bierut, Dej, Dimitrov, Gottwald, Kuusinen, and Hoxha, “On the Invitation of European Nations for the Discussion of the Marshall Plan,” July 4, 1947, AVP RF, Fond 06, op. 9, P. 20, file 236, pp. 3–4.
68 Cables reprinted in Takhnenko (July 1992:122–24); Roberts (1994); Behrman (2007:92).
69 Telegram of the CC [Central Committee] of the VCP (b) to Comrades Bierut, Tito, Dej, Gottwald, Dimitrov, Rakosi, Kuusinen, and Hoxha, “On the Invitation of European Nations for the Discussion of the Marshall Plan,” July 7, 1947, AVP RF, Fond 06, op. 9, P. 20, file 236, p. 5.
70 Mastny in Bohemia Band (1991:141); Callender (July 4, 1947).
71 Chuev (1993:61).
72 Pechatnov and Edmondson (2001:127); Parrish (March 1994:27).
73 Campbell (1947:442).
74 Telegram of the CC [Central Committee] to Comrades Bierut, Tito, Dej, Gottwald, Dimitrov, Rakosi, Kuusinen, and Hoxha, “On the Invitation of European Nations for the Discussion of the Marshall Plan,” July 7, 1947, AVP RF, F. 06, op. 9, P. 20, file 236, p. 5.
75 Kavtaradze to Vyshinsky, telegram from Bucharest transmitting the note of the Romanian government for the French and British representatives in response to the invitation to Paris, July 9, 1947, AVP RF, Fond 046, op. 7, P. 126, file 48, pp. 55–57.
76 Pechatnov and Edmondson (2001:128).
77 Letter from Stanoje Simić to Bevin and Bidault, July 9, 1947, Box 1-2, KMJ 1—3e, Arhiv Jugoslavije.
78 Borba (August 26, 1947).
79 Mastny in Bohemia Band (1991:135); Ripka (1950:53–56).
80 Telegram from Ambassador Plenipotentiary Lebedev in Warsaw to Stalin, Molotov, and others, AVP RF, Fond 06, op. 9, P. 20, file 237, p. 8.
81 Van der Beugel (1966:62).
82 Stanton Griffis to Marshall, July 10, 1947, in FRUS, 1947, III: 320–22.
83 Caffery to Marshall, July 11, 1947, in FRUS, 1947, III: 328.
84 New York Times (November 5, 1947).
85 On those elections, which were reasonably free and fair, see Schmidt (1952:97–98).
86 Krátký (1994:13); Behrman (2007:91–94); Laurence Steinhardt to Clayton, July 7, 1947, in FRUS, 1947, III: 313–14.
87 Mastny in Bohemia Band (1991:141); Ripka (1950:53); Abrams (2001:97).
88 Narinsky (March 1994:50), citing M. Bodrov to Molotov, telegram, July 9, 1947, Arkhiv Prezidenta Rossiiskoi Federatsii, Fond 3, op. 3, file 270, pp. 183–84; Takhnenko (July 1992:122–24).
89 Yergin (1977:316), Narinsky (March 1994:50), and many others write that the Czechs were “summoned” to discuss the Marshall Plan, but the meeting “had been planned for some time,” as Mastny writes in Bohemia Band (1991:142). This is confirmed by Ripka (1950:55), who discusses the origins of the meeting.
90 Loebl (1969:38); Laurence Steinhardt to Marshall, July 10, 1947, in FRUS, 1947, III: 319–20; Behrman (2007:91–95).
91 Ripka (1950:65–70). The Soviet account of the discussions is not materially different: “Record of Stalin’s conversation with Czechoslovak government delegation, July 9, 1947,” RGASPI, Fond 558, op. 11, file 393, pp. 101–3.
92 Kaplan (1987:11).
93 Bohemia Band (1991:134–37).
94 Ripka (1950:70).
95 Laurence Steinhardt to Marshall, July 10, 1947, in FRUS, 1947, III: 319–20; Czech government statement translated by Natalie Babjukova.
96 Ripka (1950:59–62).
97 Abrams (2001:101); Krátký (1994:20).
98 Feierabend (1996:352). Text translation by Natalie Babjukova.
99 Majer (1996:471); Abrams (2001:113); Behrman (2007:91–95).
100 Ripka (1950:63).
101 Lockhart (1951:66).
102 Laurence Steinhardt to Marshall, April 30, 1948, in FRUS, 1948, IV: 748.
103 Kemp (1999:98); Kaplan (1987:4).
104 Feierabend (1996:355). Text translation by Natalie Babjukova.
105 Drtina (1982:336, 345–46). Text translation by Natalie Babjukova.
106 Kaplan (1987:70, 73).
107 Smith to Marshall, July 11, 1947, in FRUS, 1947, III: 327.
108 Kennan, notes for Marshall, July 21, 1947, in FRUS, 1947, III: 335.
CHAPTER 6: UNITY
1 Cook (2001:953–54).
2 See French Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Development: http://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/en/the-ministry-of-foreign-affairs/a-tour-of-the-quai-d-orsay/article/the-main-dining. Rapelli (2004 [2011]:25).
3 Reynolds (May/June 1997).
4 Van der Beugel (1966:70).
5 Crowder (2015:193).
6 New York Times (July 11, 1947).
7 Milward (1984:69, 71).
8 Caffery to Marshall, July 11, 1947, in FRUS, 1947, II: 983.
9 Kennan, memorandum, July 18, 1947, in FRUS, 1947, III: 332.
10 Caffery to Marshall, July 20, 1947, in FRUS, 1947, III: 334.
11 Clay to Byrnes, May 11, 1947, Folder 651(2), Byrnes Papers, Clemson University Library.
12 Clay, teleconference with Howard Petersen, TT-8362, July 24, 1947, in Smith I (1974:387).
13 Bidault, communication, July 17, 1947, in FRUS, 1947, II: 992.
14 Smith (1990:435); Clay to Royall, CC-1047, July 28, 1947, in Smith I (1974:391).
15 Wesley C. Haraldson, memorandum of discussions of Clayton, Caffery, Nitze, and others in Paris, August 8, 1947, in FRUS, 1947, III: 349–50.
16 Milward (1984:97–98).
17 Gallup (September 2, 1947).
18 Wesley C. Haraldson, memorandum, “Paris Discussions on the Marshall Plan, August 4 to August 6, 1947,” August 8, 1947, in FRUS, 1947, III: 349.
19 New York Times (February 20, 1955); Sapp (Spring 1982:181).
20 H. Freeman Matthews to John Hilldring, May 15, 1947, Folder: “Memoranda 1947,” Box 10, H. Freeman Matthews Files, RG 59, National Archives.
21 James A. Stillwell to Charles E. Saltzman, “Basic Directive to General Clay,” August 25, 1947, 740.00119 Control (Germany)/8-2547, RG 59, National Archives.
22 Bohlen, memorandum, August 30, 1947, in FRUS, 1947, I: 763.
23 Gimbel (1976:237–38).
24 Milward (1984:73); Callender (July 24, 1947).
25 Murphy to Marshall, July 25, 1947, in FRUS, 1947, II: 1008–9.
26 Smith (1990:438–39).
27 Marshall to Douglas, August 8, 1947, in FRUS, 1947, II: 1025.
28 Smith (1990:437–41); Pearson (March 3, 1947); Whitman (March 8, 1974).
&n
bsp; 29 Milward (1984:74–75); Callender (August 13, 1947); New York Times (August 15, 1947).
30 Steil (2013:230, 233).
31 Milward (1984:66–67, 72).
32 Reinhart and Rogoff (2011) put the figure at 49.2 percent. INSEE put it at 59.7 percent.
33 Burnham (1990:102–3); “Summary of Fundamentals of External Financial Policy,” T232/199, Treasury Papers, UKNA; “Treasury Note,” T232/800, Treasury Papers, UKNA.
34 Second memorandum concerning the final program to be elaborated by the European Economic Co-operation Committee, July 26, 1947, Box 11, General File, Records of Temporary, Committees, Commissions and Boards: Records of the President’s Committee on Foreign Aid, Truman Library.
35 Sir David Waley, memorandum, July 29, 1947, T236/794, Treasury Papers, UKNA; Milward (1984:77).
36 Clayton to Lovett, August 1, 1947, in FRUS, 1947, III: 342.
37 The issue would come to a head nearly seventy years later in the British “Brexit” referendum.
38 Churchill, speech at Albert Hall, May 14, 1947, in James VIII (1974:7486).
39 Memorandum for the Paris delegation, July 15, 1947, FO 236/782.
40 Marshall to Douglas, September 8, 1947, in FRUS, 1947, III: 418–19.
41 Behrman (2007:100); New York Times Magazine (September 21, 1947).
42 Behrman (2007:101); Gallup I (1972:661, 666).
43 Behrman (2007:98); Roll (2001:43).
44 Alexander Efremovich Bogomolov was the Soviet ambassador to France from 1944 to 1950.
45 Gerashchenko to Vyshinsky, August 13, 1947, AVP RF, Fond 046, op. 7, P. 126, file 48, p. 145.
46 Clayton via Caffery to Marshall, July 10, 1947, in FRUS, 1947, III: 317.
47 Clayton via Caffery to Marshall, July 9, 1947, in FRUS, 1947, III: 315–16.
48 Clayton via Caffery to Marshall, July 31, 1947, in FRUS, 1947, III: 341.
49 Clayton via Caffery to Marshall, July 29, 1947, in FRUS, 1947, III: 340–41.
50 Lovett to Clayton, July 10, 1947, in FRUS, 1947, III: 325.
51 Wesley C. Haraldson, memorandum of discussions of Clayton, Caffery, Nitze, and others in Paris, August 8, 1947, in FRUS, 1947, III: 349–50.
52 Clayton via Caffery to Marshall, July 29, 1947, in FRUS, 1947, III: 340.
53 Marshall to Clayton, August 11, 1947, in FRUS, 1947, III: 350.