The Marshall Plan
Page 66
104 Clay (1950:242).
105 Yergin (1977:330–31).
106 Smirnov to Molotov, October 3, 1947, AVP RF, Fond 06, op. 9, P. 45, file 673, pp. 15–23.
107 Molotov to Stalin, November 10, 1947, RGASPI, Fond 558, op. 11, file 107, pp. 119–20.
108 At least this was Churchill’s account. See, for example, Roberts (2011:59).
109 Nicolson (1968:115–16).
110 Douglas to Marshall, paraphrasing statement of French ambassador to London René Massigli, February 28, 1948, in FRUS, 1948, II: 98.
111 Jacob D. Beam, memorandum of conversation, October 17, 1947, in FRUS, 1947, II: 688; Brewster H. Morris, memorandum, undated but transmitted on September 16, 1947, in FRUS, 1947, II: 887–89; Harrington (2012:33–34); Naimark (1995:465); Arkes (1972:23).
112 Jacob D. Beam, memorandum of conversation, October 17, 1947, in FRUS, 1947, II: 688.
113 Marshall to Lovett, December 11, 1947, in FRUS, 1947, II: 765.
114 U.S. Delegation at the CFM to Truman and others, December 12, 1947, in FRUS, 1947, II: 766–68; Clay (1950:348).
115 U.S. Delegation at the CFM to Truman and others, December 15, 1947, in FRUS, 1947, II: 771.
116 U.S. Delegation at the CFM to Truman and others, December 15, 1947, in FRUS, 1947, II: 769–772; Douglas, memorandum of conversation (with Bidault), December 17, 1947, in FRUS, 1947, II: 812; British memorandum of conversation (talks between Marshall, Robertson, Clay, and others), undated but sent by Waldemar J. Gallman to John D. Hickerson on December 30, 1947, in FRUS, 1947, II: 826; Yergin (1977:332–33); Marshall to Lovett, December 6, 1947, in FRUS, 1947, II: 751–53; Marshall to Lovett, December 11, 1947, in FRUS, 1947, II: 765; John D. Hickerson—Diplomat, 1965, John Foster Dulles Oral History Collection, Mudd Library, Princeton University; Time (January 5, 1948); Arkes (1972:41).
117 New York Herald Tribune (December 16, 1947).
118 Clay (1950:348).
119 Smith (1990:416, 419).
120 Clay to Draper, “Government for Germany,” CC-2167, November 3, 1947, in Smith I (1974:475–78). Clay would in retirement add, in wholesale contradiction to his views in early 1947, that “the Russians would never agree to elections under the terms and conditions we thought would guarantee free elections. . . . East Germany was obviously a buffer for them.” Smith (1990:539).
121 Clay to Draper, CC-2134, October 30, 1947, in Smith I (1974:459).
122 Isaacson and Thomas (1986 [2012]:287); Bohlen (1973:222).
123 Clay to Draper, “London Council of Foreign Ministers,” CC-2642, November 20, 1947, in Smith I (1974:501–2). Clay’s biographer Jean Edward Smith claims that Clay was “disappointed and distressed at the collapse of the London conference,” and that he had remained “deeply committed to German unity” and confident “that Western democracy could be extended to the Soviet zone.” Clay, he said, “was virtually alone in holding to that view in 1947. Washington had changed policy” (1990:450–51). No sources are provided, and indeed none could have been. As Smith himself noted just a few pages earlier, “The fact is, the State Department position had not changed; Clay had, and his tough statement about the Soviets was correctly reported by [CBS’ Edward R.] Murrow as a change of direction for Clay” (1990:444–45).
124 Smith (1990:455–60); New York Times (January 9, 1948); Smith and Draper, teleconference, TT-9205, March 12, 1948, in Smith II (1974:574–78); Smith and Draper, teleconference, TT-8950, January 9, 1948, in Smith II (1974:529–33).
125 Yergin (1977:330–31)
126 R. H. Hillenkoetter to Truman, March 16, 1948 (referring to CIA memo of December 22, 1947), Folder: “Memoranda 1945–1948,” Box 213, Central Intelligence File, President’s Secretary’s Files, Truman Papers, Truman Library.
127 Marshall to U.S. Embassy in Paris, February 19 and 20, 1948, in FRUS, 1948, II: 70–73.
128 Pogue IV (1987:287); Harrington (2012:41).
129 Yergin (1977:335).
130 Harrington (2012:43); Morrow (December 20, 1947) and (January 12, 1948).
131 Raymond (November 17, 1947).
132 Schwabe (1991:228).
133 Wirtschafts-Zeitung (Stuttgart), March 26, 1948, in Schwabe (1991:232).
134 Schwabe (1991:225–32).
135 Ulbricht to Suslov, “On Economic Questions,” December 12, 1947, RGASPI, Fond 17, op. 128, file 1197, pp. 6-9.
136 Lippmann (January 6, 1948).
137 Lippmann (November 24, 1947).
138 Lippmann (January 22, 1948).
139 Lippmann (December 4, 1947).
140 New York Times (February 1, 1948).
141 Reston (December 5, 1947).
142 Wall Street Journal (February 3, 1948).
143 Reston (February 27, 1948).
144 Nenni (1981:399–400).
145 Bland and Stoler VI (2013:267).
146 Marshall, statement before the joint meeting of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee and the House Committee on Foreign Affairs, November 10, 1947, 1947—80th Congress, 1st Session Collection, Congressional Testimonies, Marshall Foundation.
147 Marshall, interview with Harry B. Price, February 18, 1953, Folder: “January–June, 1953,” Box 1, Oral History Interview File, Price Papers, Truman Library.
148 Truman, “Special Message to the Congress on the First Day of the Special Session,” November 17, 1947, in Public Papers of the Presidents: Harry Truman, 1947.
149 Truman, “Special Message to the Congress on the Marshall Plan,” December 19, 1947, in Public Papers of the Presidents: Harry Truman, 1947.
150 New York Times (November 7, 1947).
151 Washington Post (November 9, 1947).
152 Reston (November 6, 1947).
153 Reston (December 9, 1947).
154 See, for example, Washington Post (November 7, 1947).
155 Douglas, statement before the Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, January 12, 1948, in Senate Committee on Foreign Relations (1948:208).
156 Marshall, statement before the Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, January 7, 1948, in House Committee on Foreign Affairs (1948:108), United States Foreign Policy for a Post-War Recovery Program.
157 Dulles, statement before the Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, January 20, 1948, in Senate Committee on Foreign Relations (1948:586–88).
158 Douglas, statement before the Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, January 12, 1948, in Senate Committee on Foreign Relations (1948:208, 76).
159 Harriman, quoting President’s Committee on Foreign Aid (November 1947:B7), in a statement before the Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, January 12, 1948, in Senate Committee on Foreign Relations (1948:246). See also House Committee on Foreign Affairs (1948:463), United States Foreign Policy for a Post-War Recovery Program.
160 Hoffman, statement before the Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, January 23, 1948, in Senate Committee on Foreign Relations (1948:852).
161 Philip D. Reed, statement before the House Committee on Foreign Affairs, in House Committee on Foreign Affairs (1948:578), United States Foreign Policy for a Post-War Recovery Program.
162 Henry Wallace, statement before the House Committee on Foreign Affairs, February 20, 1948, in House Committee on Foreign Affairs (1948:1584–99), United States Foreign Policy for a Post-War Recovery Program.
163 Reynolds (January 17, 1948).
164 Belair (February 26, 1948).
165 Henry Hazlitt, statement before the Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, January 21, 1948, in Senate Committee on Foreign Relations (1948:687); Hazlitt (1947:18–24); Hogan (1987:95–96); Steil (2013:289).
166 In today’s money, the French aid was worth $3.54 billion, the Italian aid $2.45 billion, and the Austrian aid $454 million.
167 Lovett to Marshall, December 4, 1947, in FRUS, 1947, III: 482–83.
CHAPTER 8: SAUSAGE
1 Clifford, “Memorandum for the President,” November 19, 1947, Folder: “Confidential Memo to the President [Clifford-Rowe Memorandum of Novem
ber 19, 1947],” Box 22, Political File, Clifford Papers, Truman Library: 6, 14–16, 22–23, 29–30.
2 George Elsey, “Memo Re. Wallace Situation,” Folder: “Wallace, Henry [memoranda re foreign policy views, resignation, election of 1948],” Box 19, Subject File, Clifford Papers, Truman Library: 4.
3 Lippmann (November 20, 1947).
4 Clifford, “Memorandum for the President,” November 19, 1947, Folder: “Confidential Memo to the President [Clifford-Rowe Memorandum of November 19, 1947],” Box 22, Political File, Clifford Papers, Truman Library; Hartmann (1971:129).
5 Truman, “Special Message to the Congress on the First Day of the Special Session,” November 17, 1947, in Public Papers of the Presidents: Harry Truman, 1947.
6 Belair (October 30, 1947).
7 Van der Wee (1983:436–49) provides a useful overview of exchange rate management practices, problems, and solutions in the late 1940s and 1950s.
8 Truman, “Special Message to the Congress on the Marshall Plan,” December 19, 1947, in Public Papers of the Presidents: Harry Truman, 1947.
9 Belair (November 23, 1947).
10 Hartmann (1971:122).
11 Wall Street Journal (February 26, 1948).
12 Lippmann (November 20, 1947).
13 Reston (November 25, 1947).
14 Congressional Record, 80th Congress, 1st Session, XCIII, 1947: 10980; Trussel (December 2, 1947).
15 Congressional Record, 80th Congress, 1st Session, XCIII, 1947: 11307–8.
16 “Conference Report [To accompany S. 1774],” December 13, 1947, in Legislative History of the Foreign Aid Act of 1947, P.L. 80-389, II.
17 Senator William Langer (R-ND) requested that the record show that he voted against the bill. Congressional Record, 80th Congress, 1st Session, XCIII, 1947: 11354.
18 Congressional Record, 80th Congress, 1st Session, XCIII, 1947: 11412–13.
19 Belair (January 8, 1948).
20 Reston (February 22, 1948); Belair (February 29, 1948); Lippmann (February 19, 1948); Kuhn (February 18, 1948).
21 Time (January 12, 1948).
22 Behrman (2007:135–37).
23 Kuhn (November 14, 1947).
24 Haas (2016:195).
25 Kuhn (January 25, 1948); Plokhy (2010:107).
26 Reston (January 18, 1948).
27 Huempfer (2016).
28 See, for example, Buchanan (1999).
29 Policy Planning Staff, “Review of Current Trends: U.S. Foreign Policy,” PPS/23, February 24, 1948, in FRUS, 1948, I: 512.
30 Marshall to Truman, December 21, 1947, 840.50 Recovery/12-147, RG 59, National Archives.
31 Clifford, “Memorandum for the President,” November 19, 1947, Folder: “Confidential Memo to the President [Clifford-Rowe Memorandum of November 19, 1947],” Box 22, Political File, Clifford Papers, Truman Library: 36.
32 Reston (January 9, 1948); Time (January 5, 1948); Marshall, statements before the Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, January 8, 1948, and the House Committee on Foreign Affairs, January 12, 1948, in House Committee on Foreign Affairs (1948:37, 46), United States Foreign Policy for a Post-War Recovery Program.
33 See, for example, the conclusions of a report by the Brookings Institution (January 1948:15–20). Also printed in Senate Committee on Foreign Relations (1948:855–60).
34 Congressional Record, 80th Congress, 2nd Session, XCIV, 1948: 1963.
35 Hogan (1987:101–9).
36 Vandenberg (1952:393).
37 Folder: “January, 1948,” Box 191, Truman Papers File, Historical File, President’s Secretary’s Files, Truman Papers, Truman Library.
38 Reston (January 9, 1948).
39 See, for example, Alsop and Alsop (January 25, 1948).
40 The Economist (February 4, 1948).
41 Gallup (February 8, 1948).
42 Gallup (March 31, 1948).
43 CEEC Washington Delegation to the State Department, October 27, 1947, in FRUS, 1947, III: 455. See also Sir Oliver Franks to Lovett, “Unofficial Aide-Memoire,” October 22, 1947, in FRUS, 1947, III: 450.
44 Suslov to Stalin, Molotov, Zhdanov, Beria, Mikoyan, and Malenkov, January 26, 1948, RGASPI, Fond 17, op. 128, file 1137, pp. 142–45.
45 Bulletin of International and Domestic Information of the Information Bureau of SVAG #93, August 26, 1947, RGASPI, Fond 17, op. 128, file 369, p. 165.
46 “The Influence of the Decision of the Conference of the Representatives of the Nine Communist Parties on the Growth and Strengthening of Forces of Democracy in Germany,” undated, RGASPI, Fond 575, op. 1, file 53, pp. 68, 70. (CDU = Christian Democratic Union, CSU = Christian Social Union.)
47 Nover (September 28, 1947); Hinton (November 19, 1947); Reston (December 11, 1947); Reston (October 26, 1947); White (January 17, 1948); Washington Post (January 28, 1948). On the Soviet response to the VOA, see Inkeles (October 1953:319–20, 332).
48 Haas (2016:206–7).
49 See, for example, Office of the Historian, U.S. House of Representatives: http://history.house.gov/Institution/Origins-Development/Power-of-the-Purse/.
50 Reston (December 22, 1947).
51 Sulzberger (April 11, 1948).
52 Douglas, statement before the Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, January 12, 1948, in Senate Committee on Foreign Relations (1948:76).
53 ERP Summary 7, Senate Foreign Relations Committee Hearing, January 15, 1948, Folder: “European Recovery Program [9 of 9]—Senate Foreign Relations Committee,” Box 6, Subject File, Clifford Files, Truman Papers, Truman Library.
54 ERP Summary, House Foreign Affairs Committee, January 20, 1948, Folder: “European Recovery Program [8 of 9]—House Foreign Affairs Committee,” Box 6, Subject File, Clifford Files, Truman Papers, Truman Library.
55 ERP Summary 10, Senate Foreign Relations Committee, January 20, 1948, Folder: Folder: “European Recovery Program [9 of 9]—Senate Foreign Relations Committee,” Box 6, Subject File, Clifford Files, Truman Papers, Truman Library.
56 Marshall, statement before the House Committee on Foreign Affairs, January 12, 1948, in House Committee on Foreign Affairs (1948), United States Foreign Policy for a Post-War Recovery Program.
57 Bernard M. Baruch, statement before the Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, January 19, 1948, in Senate Committee on Foreign Relations (1948:556); Reston (January 20, 1948).
58 Lord Inverchapel (Sir Archibald Clark Kerr) to Marshall, “Summary of a Memorandum Representing Mr. Bevin’s Views on the Formation of a Western Union,” January 13, 1948, in FRUS, 1948, III: 5.
59 Washington Post (January 23, 1948); Lippmann (January 26, 1948).
60 Reston (February 6, 1948).
61 Reston (January 18, 1948).
62 Reston (January 4, 1948).
63 Thompson (2009:80-82) Isaacson and Thomas (1986 [2012]:433).
CHAPTER 9: SUBVERSION
1 “Proposal of the IV ED of the MID of the USSR regarding the major direction of the Czechoslovak policy following the February crisis, March 2, 1948,” in The Soviet Factor in Eastern Europe 1944–1953, I (1999:553–55); Haslam (2011:98–99).
2 Heinemann-Grueder (1999:334, 336); Gottwald to Stalin, November 25, 1947, RGASPI, Fond 558, op. 11, file 393, p. 124; Stalin to Gottwald, November 29, 1947, RGASPI, Fond 558, op. 11, file 393, p. 126.
3 Feierabend (1996:362).
4 Ross (January 18, 1948).
5 Policy Planning Staff, “Résume of World Situation,” PPS/13, November 6, 1947, in FRUS, 1947, I: 771, 773.
6 Heimann (2009:172); James (2014:283).
7 Charles Yost to Marshall, September 15, 1947, in FRUS, 1947, IV: 231.
8 Ripka (1950:210–20).
9 Laurence Steinhardt to Marshall, April 30, 1948, in FRUS, 1948, IV: 750; Haslam (2011:99–100); Ripka (1950:222, 227, 231–36); Kaplan (1987:179).
10 Crowder (2015:215).
11 Isaacson and Thomas (1986 [2012]:243); Bohlen (1973:170).
12 Ripka (1950:240–41, 250–51, 265, 267, 278–79, 281, 284–85,
293, 296, 307); Lukes (September 2011:443); Spalding (2006:100).
13 Ripka (1950:7).
14 Laurence Steinhardt to Marshall, April 30, 1948, in FRUS, 1948, IV: 747–53; Ripka (1950:299–300).
15 Laurence Steinhardt to Marshall, February 27, 1948, in FRUS, 1948, IV: 741–42.
16 Laurence Steinhardt to Marshall, March 10, 1948, in FRUS, 1948, IV: 743–44; Laurence Steinhardt to Marshall, April 30, 1948, in FRUS, 1948, IV: 751.
17 Cameron (January 6, 2004).
18 Yergin (1977:352).
19 Ripka (1950:313–18).
20 Kennan I (1967:422).
21 Lukes (2012:15).
22 John D. Hickerson to Marshall, memorandum, March 8, 1948, in FRUS, 1948, III: 41.
23 Lukes (2012:4, 32); Eugene V. Rostow to Dean Rusk, May 10, 1968, Folder: “6/1/68,” Box 1558, POL—Czech, USSR DEF 4 NATO, Center Foreign Policy Files, RG 59, National Archives. For Dulles’ view, see “Notes on the Meeting of the Operations Coordinating Board, Washington, January 5, 1955,” in FRUS, 1955–1957, XXV: 7.
24 Lukes (2012:8–9); Masaryk, memorandum of conversation with Roosevelt, February 4, 1944, in Němeček (1999:229–30).
25 Lukes (2012:43-45); Eisenhower to U.S. Military Mission, May 6, 1945, FW 860f.01/12-1748, RG 59, National Archives.
26 Cormac (May 10, 1945); Lukes (2012:51).
27 Lukes (2012:106–8); Murphy to Byrnes, August 31, 1945, 860f.01/8-3145, RG 59, National Archives; Laurence Steinhardt to Byrnes, September 4, 1945, in FRUS, 1945, IV: 489.
28 Ripka (1950:49); Lukes (2012:108–12, 127–28); Byrnes to Acheson, August 30, 1946, in FRUS, 1946, VI: 216–17; Laurence Steinhardt to Byrnes, December 23, 1946, in FRUS, 1946, VI: 238–41; Margh (November 1, 1946).
29 John Bruins to Marshall, January 28, 1948, in FRUS, 1948, IV: 733.
30 Laurence Steinhardt to Marshall, February 26, 1948, in FRUS, 1948, IV: 739.
31 Laurence Steinhardt to Marshall, November 13, 1947, in FRUS, 1947, IV: 243.
32 James Riddleberger to Laurence Steinhardt, December 2, 1946, Box 51, 1946, General File, Steinhardt Papers, Library of Congress.
33 Werth (1971:328–29); Ross (January 4, 1948).
34 Marshall to Caffery, February 24, 1948, in FRUS, 1948, IV: 735–37.