by Benn Steil
Japan, 9–10, 373
Jarman, Peterson, 194, 418
Javits, Jacob, 192, 418
Jessup, Philip, 298, 311–14, 322–23, 327, 332, 418, 422
Jews, 16–17, 58, 106, 240
Johnson, Louis, 316–17, 418
Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS), 89–90, 104, 105–6, 280, 293, 327
Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS) directive 1067, 89–90, 104, 105–6
Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS) directive 1779, 106
Joint Export-Import Agency (U.S.-U.K.), 153
Jones, Joseph, Jr., 31–32, 34, 35, 36, 38, 94, 418
Judt, Tony, 16, 419, 509n
Kardelj, Edvard, 182, 419
Kars-Ardahan regions, 23–24
Kennan, George F., 419
Acheson compared with, 26, 28–29, 30, 33, 37, 50, 91, 98–102, 326–27, 328
British interests as viewed by, 169–70
Clay compared with, 107, 250, 255–56, 326–27
Cold War as viewed by, 10, 28, 37, 115, 118, 187, 297, 315–16, 340–41, 356, 385
containment strategy of, 29–32, 33, 37, 41, 255–56, 316, 325–28, 340, 369, 373, 375, 386, 389–90, 403
European recovery supported by, 89, 91–92, 103, 108–10, 126, 133, 144–45, 161, 168, 169–71, 184–85, 225, 236, 241, 255–56, 265, 297, 317, 320, 326–28, 340, 345–46, 356
Foreign Affairs (“X”) article of, 30–32, 255–56, 326, 328
German postwar development as viewed by, 68, 83, 89, 250, 255–56, 276, 326–27, 340, 356, 361
as intellectual, 28, 30–31, 41, 50, 103, 107, 110, 113, 126, 171, 182, 187, 247, 297, 326–28, 340, 397
Lippmann’s relationship with, 187, 255–56
Long Telegram of, 10, 29–32, 255, 385
Marshall Plan contribution of, 9, 87–88, 108–10, 113, 162, 171, 206–7, 243, 247, 255–56, 261–66, 316–17, 320–21, 326–28, 340–41, 345–46, 347, 361, 365, 372
Marshall’s relationship with, 87, 102–3, 108–9, 113, 206–7, 243, 326–27
military and security issues as viewed by, 315–16, 317, 320, 326–28, 356, 397, 400, 403–4
at Office of Policy Coordination (OPC), 315–16
on Policy Planning Staff (PPS), 87–88, 98–103, 108, 253, 265, 316, 328
as Soviet expert, 25–31, 33, 41, 43, 60, 65, 73, 89, 90–92, 108, 113, 115, 118, 133, 144–45, 168, 182, 184–85, 187, 236, 241, 255–56, 267, 268–69, 278, 340–41, 385
Stalin as viewed by, 73, 108, 115, 133, 267, 278, 297, 325, 385
Truman’s relationship with, 41–42, 92–93, 102–3, 262, 265, 267, 276, 320–21
at War College, 25, 31, 87, 98, 256, 340
Keynes, John Maynard, 125, 193, 195, 345
Keynesian economics, 343, 350, 365–66, 520n
Khrushchev, Nikita, 185, 249, 400, 419
Kindleberger, Charles, 87, 162, 345, 365, 419
King, Mackenzie, 263, 419
Kissinger, Henry, 30–31, 394, 419
Knowland, William, 257, 419
Koenig, Marie-Pierre, 64, 272, 308–9, 419
Kohl, Helmut, 378–83, 419
Kohler, Foy, 292, 295, 311, 419
Kopecký, Václav, 238, 419
Korean War, 316
Kosovo, 391–95, 397
Kotikov, Alexander, 303, 419
Kozyrev, Andrei, 400, 420
Krug, Julius, 194, 197, 420, 532n
Kuznetsov, Fyodor, 296, 420
labor supply, 155, 159–60
labor unions, 124, 149, 187, 200
Labour Party, 21, 124–25, 154, 155, 165, 170, 333, 348–49, 359, 360, 567n
Ladas, Christos, 269, 420
La Follette, Robert, Jr., 195, 420
Länder (German state governments), 77–78, 309–10, 329, 360
Lasky, Melvin, 302, 420
Latvia, 73, 401, 402
Lavrov, Sergei, 399, 420
Law and Justice (PiS), 395–96
Leahy, William, 5, 25, 207, 280, 420
LeMay, Curtis, 280, 282, 420
Lend-Lease Program, 5, 20, 39, 56, 75, 76, 97, 122, 211, 222, 223
Lenin, V. I., 57–58, 72, 83, 256, 420
Letourneau, Jean, 305, 420
Life, 181, 262
Lippmann, Walter, 49–50, 98, 175, 187, 210, 220, 221, 250, 251–52, 255, 301, 316, 326, 327, 420
liquid natural gas (LNG), 401
Lithuania, 73, 401
Litvinov, Maxim, 47, 58, 65, 400, 420
living standards, 61, 65, 107, 162, 166, 168, 174, 221, 341, 359, 368
loans, 37, 39, 135, 137, 161, 162, 165, 190, 230, 244–45, 370
Locarno Pact (1925), 321
Lodge, Henry Cabot, Jr., 228, 257, 373, 420
Lomakin, Yakov, 46, 421
London, 111, 114, 152, 156, 272
London Accord (1947), 202–6, 207, 209, 228, 249–55, 284, 286, 287–89, 295, 311, 326, 358, 365, 534n–35n, 570n
Longo, Luigi, 182, 421
Long Telegram, 10, 29–32, 255, 385
Lovett, Robert, 91–92, 133–34, 151–52, 159, 160–63, 166, 171, 172, 205, 206, 217, 222, 225, 247, 252, 256, 260, 271, 280, 287, 294, 307, 316, 319, 359
Lozovsky, Solomon, 78, 420
Lucas, Scott, 215–16, 420
Luxembourg, 100, 147, 148, 318, 367
MacArthur, Douglas, 334
McCarthyism, 45
McClellan, John, 257, 422
McCloy, John J., 18, 90, 91, 137, 189–90, 336, 422
MacColl, René, 94, 111, 421
machine tools, 81, 277–78, 355
Mackinder, Halford, 42–43, 90, 372, 385, 421, 456
Maclean, Donald, 127, 250, 282, 283, 284, 319, 421
McNaughton, Frank, 320, 423
macroeconomic indicators, 11, 351–52, 446–53
MacVeagh, Lincoln, 26, 43, 421
Magistrat (West Berlin), 273, 285, 286, 303
Maier, Charles, 366, 421
Maisky, Ivan, 62–63, 79, 400, 421
Malenkov, Georgy, 211, 421
Malik, Yakov, 311–14, 322–23, 421–22
Malone, George, 192, 422
Mamedov, Georgy, 387, 422
Mann, Thomas, 106
Mao Tse-tung, 56, 269, 422
Map Room (White House), 25
maps, 25, 42–43, 101, 177, 296, 456–60
Marshall, George C.:
Acheson’s relationship with, 22, 27–28, 32–35, 70, 86, 93, 94–96, 110, 111–12, 113, 309, 310
advisers of, 22, 27–28, 32–33, 102–3, 108–12, 134, 149–52, 206–7, 284–85, 303–4
background of, 55–57, 422
Berlin situation as viewed by, 280–98, 303–4
Clay’s relationship with, 105, 107–8, 149–52, 206–7, 284–85, 303–4
Clay’s views on policies of, 70, 103–4, 105, 150–53, 206–7, 287, 325, 372
Clayton’s relationship with, 99–100, 159, 166–74, 243
congressional testimony of, 34–35, 58, 87, 211–12, 230–31
foreign aid policies of, 22, 32–35
German postwar recovery supported by, 105, 107–8, 115, 149–50, 206–8, 280–98, 303–4
Harvard University speech of (June 5, 1947), 109–10, 111, 160, 194, 199, 212, 261, 335, 344, 353, 384, 400, 441–44
Kennan’s relationship with, 87, 102–3, 108–9, 113, 206–7, 243, 326–27
Marshall Plan formulated by, 13, 86–87, 91, 98–103, 107–18, 126, 134, 176–77, 202, 211, 228–30, 247, 335, 359
Molotov’s meetings with, 45, 56–61, 68, 70–71, 74, 76–77, 110, 281, 287, 288, 306
at Moscow conference, 55–86, 110, 115, 126, 179
Princeton University speech of (1947), 22–23
resignation of, 300
as secretary of state, 9, 27, 32, 55–57, 108–10, 134, 206–7, 219, 300, 301, 335
Soviet Union as viewed by, 84–86, 108–9, 115, 228, 281–82, 285, 287
Stalin’s relationship with, 39, 46, 55–57, 71–86, 105, 110, 115, 177, 179, 281, 285, 341, 349
as Time’s
“Man of the Year” (1947), 222
Marshall Plan:
Acheson’s support for, 70, 86, 96, 98–102, 108, 110, 111, 112, 114, 199, 247 309–10, 311, 313, 319, 320, 324, 346, 372, 407
administration of, 199–200, 225–26, 262–63, 305, 315–16, 345–56, 369, 568n–69n
back-channel communications on, 157–58, 310–14
business support for, 133, 192, 199–200, 223–24, 262–63, 314, 369–70
cables issued for, 105, 129, 135–36, 160–61, 186, 266
Clayton’s contribution to, 99–101, 103, 108, 110, 113, 121, 128, 151, 154, 157–62, 164, 165, 166–74, 243, 257, 341, 345, 346, 353, 372
Cominform (Communist Information Bureau) as alternative to, 180, 182, 184, 185–86, 235–36, 257, 349, 371
congressional approval of, 2, 33–36, 50, 161, 176, 193–98, 211–17, 224, 226–33, 247–49, 256–61, 317–18, 320
conservative opposition to, 49, 191–92, 258
Council of Foreign Ministers (CFM) involvement in, 8, 10, 77, 126, 153, 254, 296, 297–98, 311, 313, 322–23, 325, 329–33, 334
credits issued in, 183, 220, 221, 223, 227, 244, 249, 263, 305, 358–59, 362, 363
customs union for, 159, 162, 165, 173–74, 379; see also Benelux
data on, 11, 148, 156–57, 159, 160, 162, 169, 172, 173, 175, 232, 305, 351–52, 365–69, 446–53
diplomatic maneuvering in, 8–10, 77, 105, 126, 129, 135–36, 151, 153, 160–61, 186, 231, 254, 266, 268–69, 296, 297–98, 308–9, 311, 313, 322–23, 325, 329–33, 334, 373, 375
Eastern European rejection of, 135–45, 146, 235–45
economic program for, 120–21, 153–54, 159–63, 172–73, 176–77, 210–12, 214, 362–65
espionage and intelligence on, 79, 241, 268–69, 277, 279, 282, 283, 284, 298, 319
Eurocommunism countered by, 180–89, 191, 193–94, 210, 227–28, 315, 353
financial reports on, 86–87, 98, 175
funding of, 34, 67, 76, 90, 192, 197, 215–17, 222, 225–27, 231–33, 262–63, 270, 307, 327, 360–61
German reconstruction aided by, 118–19, 140–41, 149–50, 206–10, 313–14, 336, 357–62, 378–79
historical analysis of, 365–69
Kennan’s contribution to, 9, 87–88, 108–10, 113, 162, 171, 206–7, 243, 247, 255–56, 261–66, 316–17, 320–21, 326–28, 340–41, 345–46, 347, 361, 365, 372
legacy of, ix–x, 13, 365–78, 398–404
loan arrangements in, 37, 39, 135, 137, 161, 162, 165, 190, 230, 244–45, 370
London Accord (1947) for, 202–6, 207, 209, 228, 249–55, 284, 286, 287–89, 295, 311, 326, 358, 365, 534n–35n, 570n
Marshall’s formulation of, 13, 86–87, 91, 98–103, 107–18, 126, 134, 176–77, 202, 211, 228–30, 247, 335, 359
memos issued for, 51–53, 59, 98, 99, 105, 144–45, 163, 165, 169–70, 190–91, 202–3
Molotov’s opposition to, 117–18, 119–21, 126–27, 132–45, 184, 202, 205–6, 265–66, 306
Morgenthau Plan compared with, 6, 8–9, 89, 90, 96, 99, 104–5, 115, 149, 151, 183, 209, 225–26, 357, 424
Moscow Conference (1947) for, 37, 46, 52, 53, 54–86, 94, 110, 115, 126, 179, 202
Paris conferences on, 118–19, 121–44, 152, 154, 157, 159–73, 175, 176, 183–88, 196, 197, 202, 208, 209, 226, 236, 323, 329–33, 334, 350–51
Policy Planning Staff (PPS) research on, 87–88, 98–103, 108, 253, 265, 316, 328
press coverage, 4, 27, 36–37, 45–46, 57, 65, 87, 102, 104, 111, 114, 187, 193, 196, 205–6, 209, 210–11, 213, 222, 226, 227, 256–60, 265, 269, 282, 311, 315–16, 324, 327, 330, 347, 531n
psychological impact of, 91, 92, 103, 261–62, 315–16, 320–21, 340, 346
public support for, 9, 20, 36, 38, 41, 46, 49, 51–52, 67, 75, 93–97, 102, 174, 197–205, 208, 209, 213, 227, 249, 257, 267–68, 304–5, 315–16, 323
Republican support for, 191–93, 196, 198, 199, 213, 215–16, 219–20, 221, 222, 224, 225–26, 247, 251, 258, 259, 260, 262, 301–2, 317, 348, 371, 372, 389–90
Soviet opposition to, 115–21, 126–29, 130, 132–45, 161, 175–84, 202–6, 223, 227–30, 242–44, 259, 265–68, 275–76, 288–89, 306, 314–15, 370–71, 383–90, 400
Stalin’s opposition to, 115–21, 127–29, 130, 133–35, 142–45, 161, 177, 179–84, 223, 242–44, 259, 266–67, 288–89, 306, 314–15, 370–71, 385, 400
State, War, and Navy department staff (SWNCC) report on, 86–87, 98
statistics analysis of, 11, 148, 156–57, 159, 160, 162, 172, 305, 351–52, 446–53
taxation and funding of, 34, 67, 76, 90, 192, 222, 270, 307
U.N. role in, 179–81, 212–13, 215, 228, 268, 281, 283, 287, 295–99, 304, 308–9, 311–12, 317–18, 341
Western European support for, 118–19, 122, 126–28, 130, 132–33, 145, 146–60, 176, 189–91, 202–10, 214, 227–28, 305–7, 313–14, 326–28, 331–32, 352–54, 362–65
Martin, Joseph, 34, 251, 258, 422
Marxism, 29, 30, 57, 72, 73, 185, 266, 385
Masaryk, Jan, 119, 138, 139, 235–36, 237, 240–43, 266, 384, 422
Meany, George, 195, 200, 423
Mediterranean region, 11, 24–25, 35, 36, 38, 43, 48, 370–71
Medvedev, Dmitry, 392, 402, 423
“Meeting on Marshall ‘Plan’ ” (August 22, 1947), 162
Mendès-France, Pierre, 153, 423
Merkel, Angela, 382, 402, 423
Miall, Leonard, 94, 111, 114, 423
Middle East, 11, 26, 31–32, 34, 35, 43, 44, 51, 144, 386
Middleton, Drew, 256–57
migration, 155, 303, 330, 382
military governors, 64–65, 68, 89, 103–7, 134, 151–52, 203, 206–7, 270–75, 278, 282, 287–90, 302, 307–8, 321–25, 334, 357, 359–60, 367, 372
military security, x, 33–34, 44, 150, 280, 302, 318–22, 325, 327, 335, 356, 369, 371, 373, 375, 379, 380–84, 385, 387–403, 415, 574n, 577n
see also North Atlantic Treaty Organization; Warsaw Pact (1955)
Milward, Alan, 174, 365–69, 423
Mississippi, 93–96, 110, 111
Missouri, 221–22
Mitterrand, François, 378–79, 383, 423
Modzelewski, Zygmunt, 137, 423
Moldova, 396, 397
Molotov, Vyacheslav:
Acheson’s views on, 129, 133
background of, 58, 423
Berlin situation as viewed by, 253, 254, 255–56, 277, 283, 285–87, 289, 291, 297–98
British relations with, 70, 122, 124, 126–27, 131, 138
Clay’s views on, 205–6, 286, 287, 288
Eastern European policies of, 135–38, 143, 235, 237, 253, 266, 277
as foreign minister, 4, 5–6, 10, 23, 32, 58–61, 68, 127–28, 181, 184–85, 269, 297
French relations with, 69, 129–30, 138, 202
German postwar development as viewed by, 124, 203–5, 253–56, 266, 277, 283, 285–87, 289, 291, 297–98
in London talks, 202–5
Marshall Plan opposed by, 117–18, 119–21, 126–27, 132–45, 184, 202, 205–6, 265–66, 306
Marshall’s meetings with, 45, 56–61, 68, 70–71, 74, 76–77, 110, 281, 287, 288, 306
military and security issues as viewed by, 253, 254, 265–66
as negotiator, 58–61, 68, 70–71, 74, 117–38, 163, 184, 202–5, 269
in Paris talks, 117–38, 163, 184
Smith’s meetings with, 266–68, 285–87
Stalin’s relationship with, 4, 6, 47, 48, 58, 74, 77, 79, 110, 120, 127–30, 133, 203, 266–67, 269, 288, 291, 293
Truman’s relationship with, 5–6, 10, 46, 48, 70, 265, 283, 293
Turkish policy of, 23–24, 48
Western European policies of, 79, 129–32, 210, 253, 266–68
monetary stabilization, 158, 221, 350–54, 382–83, 567n
Monnet, Jean, 158, 164, 263, 321–22, 423–24
Monnet Plan, 20, 114, 150, 153, 350, 351, 354
monopolies, 157, 215, 275, 331
Monroe, James, 2, 45,
341
Montreux Convention (1936), 24
Morgenthau, Henry, Jr., 2, 6, 8, 9, 11, 39, 69, 81, 88–89, 99, 104, 165, 270, 356, 357, 371, 372, 424
Morgenthau Plan, 6, 8–9, 89, 90, 96, 99, 104–5, 115, 149, 151, 183, 209, 225–26, 357, 424
Moscow Conference (1947), 37, 46, 52, 53, 54–86, 94, 110, 115, 126, 179, 202
Mosley, Leonard, 16, 424
Muggeridge, Malcolm, 94, 111, 424
multilateralism, 158, 163, 165
Mundt, Karl, 193–94, 424
Munich Agreement (1938), 137–38, 143, 280
Murphy, Robert, 83, 152, 202, 242, 250, 279, 280, 289, 290, 303, 307, 310, 332, 372, 424
Nagasaki bombing (1945), 282
Napoleon I, Emperor of France, 23, 71, 78, 386
National Advisory Council, 352, 353, 568n–69n
National Assembly, French, 170, 188, 271
National Association of Manufacturers (NAM), 200, 314, 369
National Conference on the Problem of Germany, 356
National Front, 137, 239, 337
National Garden Conference, 201
national income accounting, 156–57, 169, 345
National Industrial Conference Board (NICB), 224
nationalism, 79, 81, 181, 195, 310, 326, 336, 387, 400
nationalization, 155, 204, 214–15, 216, 237, 348
National Planning Association, 199
National Security Council (NSC), 245, 253, 287, 292, 303–4, 372, 382
National Security Council (NSC) 20/4 paper, 372
National War College, 25, 31, 87, 98, 256, 340
Nazism, 18, 27, 34, 39, 47, 60, 73, 79, 80–81, 188, 215, 238, 242, 270, 276, 278, 358, 386
Nazi-Soviet Nonaggression Pact (1939), 73, 79
Netherlands, 17–18, 100, 147, 148, 154, 227, 305, 318, 342, 343, 344, 368
Neutrality Acts, 2, 97, 317
New Deal, 51, 88, 192, 195–96, 215, 216, 366
New Republic, 66, 307
New York Herald Tribune, 104, 114, 205–6
New York Times, 5, 16, 36, 45, 46, 96, 101, 114, 156, 172–73, 185, 188–89, 193, 208, 243, 248, 256, 268, 280, 327, 334, 400
Nicholas II, Tsar of Russia, 57
Nitze, Paul, 99, 100, 159, 232, 328, 330–31, 424
Nixon, Richard M., 194, 424
Nobel Peace Prize, 335
North Atlantic Treaty (1949), 302, 318–19, 325, 335, 356
North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), x, 280, 302, 313, 318–22, 325, 327, 335, 356, 369, 371, 373, 375, 379, 380–84, 385, 387–403, 415, 574n, 577n
North Korea, 245, 352, 355
Norway, 147, 148, 151, 154, 168, 318, 342, 386