Anxiety

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by Daniel Freeman


  Miller, C.H. and Hedges, D.W. (2008). Scrupulosity Disorder: An Overview and Introductory Analysis. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 22: 1042–1058.

  Plomin, R., DeFries, J.C., McClearn, G.E., and McGuffin, P. (2008). Behavioral Genetics, 5th edn. (New York: Worth).

  Rachman, S. (2004). Anxiety, 2nd edn. (Hove and New York: Psychology Press).

  Rachman, S. and de Silva, P. (1978). Abnormal and Normal Obsessions. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 16: 233–248.

  Ruscio, A.M., Stein, D.J., Chiu, W.T., and Kessler, R.C. (2010). The Epidemiology of Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder in the National Comorbidity Replication Survey. Molecular Psychiatry, 15: 53–63.

  Salkovskis, P.M. (1999). Understanding and Treating Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 37: S29–S52.

  Tolin, D.F., Abramowitz, J.S., Przeworski, A., and Foa, E.B. (2002). Thought Suppression in Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 40: 1255–1274.

  van den Hout, M.A., Engelhard, I.M., de Boer, C., du Bois, A., and Dek, E. (2008). Perseverative and Compulsive-like Staring Causes Uncertainty About Perception. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 46: 1300–1304.

  van den Hout, M.A. and Kindt, M. (2003). Repeated Checking Causes Memory Distrust. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 41: 301–316.

  van Grootheest, D.S., Boomsma, D.I., Hettema, J.M., and Kendler, K.S. (2007). Heritability of Obsessive-Compulsive Symptom Dimensions. American Journal of Medical Genetics, 147B: 473–478.

  Chapter 10

  Afifi, T.O., Asmundson, G.J.G., Taylor, S., and Jang, K.L. (2010). The Role of Genes and Environment on Trauma Exposure and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Symptoms: A Review of Twin Studies. Clinical Psychology Review, 30: 101–112.

  American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th edn., Text Revision. (Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Association).

  Asmundson, J.G.J., Stapleton, J.A., and Taylor, S. (2004). Are Avoidance and Numbing Distinct PTSD Symptom Clusters? Journal of Traumatic Stress, 17: 467–475.

  Barlow, D.H. (2002). Anxiety and its Disorders, 2nd edn. (New York: Guilford Press).

  Berrios, G. and Porter, R. (eds.) (1995). A History of Clinical Psychiatry: The Origin and History of Psychiatric Disorders. (London: Athlone Press).

  Brewin, C.R., Dalgleish, T., and Joseph, S. (1996). A Dual Representation Theory of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder. Psychological Review, 103: 670–686.

  Cohen Silver, R., Holman, E.A., McIntosh, D.N., Poulin, M., Gil-Rivas, V., and Pizarro, J. (2006). Coping with a National Trauma: A Nationwide Longitudinal Study of Responses to the Terrorist Attacks of September 11. In Y. Neria, R. Gross, R. Marshall, and E. Susser (eds.), 9/11: Mental Health in the Wake of Terrorist Attacks. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press).

  Cox, B.J., Mota, N., Clara, I., and Asmundson, G.J.G. (2008). The Symptom Structure of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in the National Comorbidity Replication Survey. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 22: 1523–1528.

  DeLisi, L.E. (2005). The New York Experience: Terrorist Attacks on September 11, 2001. In J.J. López-Ibor, G. Christodoulou, M. Maj, N. Sartorius, and A. Okasha (eds.), Disasters and Mental Health. (Chichester: John Wiley).

  Ehlers, A. and Clark, D.M. (2000). A Cognitive Model of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 38: 319–345.

  Ehring, T., Ehlers, A., and Glucksman, E. (2008). Do Cognitive Models Help in Predicting the Severity of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder, Phobia, and Depression after Motor Vehicle Accidents? Sources A Prospective Longitudinal Study. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 76: 219–230.

  de Jong, J.T.V.M., Komproe, I.H., van Ommeren, M., El Masri, M., Araya, M., Khaled, N., van de Put, W., and Somasundaram, D. (2001). Lifetime Events and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in 4 Postconflict Settings. Journal of the American Medical Association, 286: 555–562.

  Kessler, R.C., Sonnega, A., Bromet, E., Hughes, M., and Nelson, C.B. (1995). Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in the National Comorbidity Survey. Archives of General Psychiatry, 52: 1048–1060.

  Mol, S.S.L., Arntz, A., Metsemakers, J.F.M., Dinant, G.J., Vilters-Van Montfort, P.A.P., and Knottnerus, J.A. (2005). Symptoms of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder After Non-Traumatic Events: Evidence from an Open Population Study. British Journal of Psychiatry, 186: 494–499.

  Rachman, S. (2004). Anxiety, 2nd edn. (Hove and New York: Psychology Press).

  Reyes, G., Elhai, J.D., and Ford, J.D. (eds.) (2008). The Encyclopedia of Psychological Trauma. (Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley).

  Stein, M.B., Jang, K.L., Taylor, S., Vernon, P.A., and Livesley, W.J. (2002). Genetic and Environmental Influences on Trauma Exposure and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Symptoms: A Twin Study. American Journal of Psychiatry, 159: 1675–1681.

  Wang, Z., Neylan, T.C., Mueller, S.G., Lenoci, M., Truran, D., Marmar, C.R., Weiner, M.W., and Schuff, N. (2010). Magnetic Resonance Imaging of Hippocampal Subfields in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry, 67: 296–303.

  Whalley, M.G. and Brewin, C.R. (2007). Mental Health Following Terrorist Attacks. British Journal of Psychiatry, 190: 94–96.

  Chapter 11

  Blank, L., Grimsley, M., Goyder, E., Ellis, E., and Peters, J. (2007). Community-Based Lifestyle Interventions: Changing Behaviour and Improving Health. Journal of Public Health, 29: 236–245.

  Gelder, M., Harrison, P., and Cowen, P. (2006). Shorter Oxford Textbook of Psychiatry. (Oxford: Oxford University Press).

  Gerrardi, M., Rothbaum, B.O., Ressler, K., Heekin, M., and Rizzo, A. (2008). Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy Using a Virtual Iraq: Case Report. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 21: 209–213.

  Grey, N. (ed.) (2009). A Casebook of Cognitive Therapy for Traumatic Stress Reactions. (Hove: Routledge).

  Grossman, P., Niemann, L., Schmidt, S., and Walach, H. (2004). Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction and Health Benefits: A Meta-Analysis. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 57: 35–43.

  Healy, D. (2009). Psychiatric Drugs Explained, 5th edn. (Oxford: Elsevier).

  Kirkwood, G., Rampes, H., Tuffrey, V., Richardson, J., and Pilkington, K. (2005). Yoga for Anxiety: A Systematic Review of the Research. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 39: 884–891.

  Manzoni, G.M., Pagnini, F., Castelnuovo, G., and Molinari, E. (2008). Relaxation Training for Anxiety: A Ten-Years Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis. BMC Psychiatry, 8: 41.

  McManus, S., Meltzer, H., Brugha, T., Bebbington, P., and Jenkins, R. (2009). Adult Psychiatric Morbidity in England, 2007. (Leeds: NHS Information Centre).

  Moyer, C.A., Rounds, J., and Hannum, J.W. (2004). A Meta-Analysis of Massage Therapy Research. Psychological Bulletin, 130: 3–18.

  National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (2005). Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (London: NICE).

  National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (2005). Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (London: NICE).

  National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (2007). Anxiety (Amended) (London: NICE).

  NHS Primary Care Guidelines (2004). Phobic Disorders (World Health Organization).

  Öst, L.G. (1997). Rapid Treatment of Specific Phobias. In G.C.L. Davey (ed.), Phobias: A Handbook of Theory, Research and Treatment. (Chichester: Wiley).

  Otto, M.W., Behar, E., Smits, J.A.J., and Hofmann, S.G. (2009). Combining Pharmacological and Cognitive Behavioral Therapy in the Treatment of Anxiety Disorders. In M.M. Antony and M.B. Stein (eds.), Oxford Handbook of Anxiety and Related Disorders. (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press).

  Powers, M.B. and Emmelkamp, P.M.G. (2008). Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy for Anxiety Disorders: A Meta-Analysis. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 22: 561–569.

  Salmon, P. (2001). Effects of Physical Exercise on Anxiety, Depression, and Sensitivity to Stress: A Unifying Theory. Clinical Psychology Review, 21: 33–61.

  Schulz, K.F., Altman, D.G., and Moher, D. (2010). CONSORT 2010 Statement: Updated Guidelines for Repo
rting Parallel Group Randomized Trials. Annals of Internal Medicine, 152: 1–8.

  Walker, J.R., Vincent, N., and Furer, P. (2009). Self-Help Treatments for Anxiety Disorders. In M.M. Antony and M.B. Stein (eds.), Oxford Handbook of Anxiety and Related Disorders. (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press).

  Weiss, D. S., and Marmar, C. R. (1997). The Impact of Event Scale–Revised. In J. Wilson & T. M. Keane (eds.), Assessing Psychological Trauma and PTSD. (New York: Guilford).

  Further reading

  If you’d like more information about anxiety disorders in general, we’ve devoted a substantial section to them in Know Your Mind: Everyday Emotional and Psychological Problems and How to Overcome Them (Rodale, 2009). Also worth checking out is Helen Kennerley’s Overcoming Anxiety (Robinson, 2009).

  On the Internet, see www.anxietyuk.org.uk, the website of the charity Anxiety UK, and www.adaa.org, which is run by the Anxiety Disorders Association of America.

  Phobias

  Edmund Bourne, The Anxiety and Phobia Workbook, 5th edn. (New Harbinger, 2011)

  Warren Mansell, Coping with Fears and Phobias (Oneworld, 2007)

  http://topuk.org (Triumph Over Phobia UK)

  Shyness and social phobia

  Gillian Butler, Overcoming Social Anxiety and Shyness (Robinson, 2009)

  Murray Stein and John Walker, Triumph Over Shyness (Anxiety Disorders Association of America, 2002)

  www.anxietynetwork.com

  www.social-anxiety.org.uk

  www.socialphobia.org

  Panic disorder

  Stanley Rachman and Padmal de Silva, Panic Disorder: The Facts (Oxford University Press, 2009)

  Derrick Silove and Vijaya Manicavasagar, Overcoming Panic and Agoraphobia (Robinson, 2009)

  http://www.nomorepanic.co.uk

  http://nopanic.org.uk

  http://anxietypanic.com

  Worry and generalized anxiety disorder

  Robert Leahy, The Worry Cure (New Harbinger, 2006)

  Kevin Meares and Mark Freeston, Overcoming Worry (Robinson, 2008)

  Obsessive-compulsive disorder

  Christine Purdon and David Clark, Overcoming Obsessive Thoughts (New Harbinger, 2005)

  Padmal de Silva and Stanley Rachman, Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (Oxford University Press, 2009)

  David Veale and Rob Willson, Overcoming Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (Robinson, 2009)

  http://www.ocdaction.org.uk

  http://www.ocfoundation.org

  Post-traumatic stress disorder

  Barbara Olasov Rothbaum, Edna Foa, and Elizabeth Hembree, Reclaiming Your Life from a Traumatic Experience (Oxford University Press, 2007)

  Glenn Schiraldi, The Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder Sourcebook, 2nd edn. (McGraw-Hill, 2009)

  http://www.ptsd.va.gov

  Index

  9/11 attacks, after-effects 102–3

  A

  abuse, childhood 39, 83–4

  accidents

  and cognitive behaviour therapy 120–1

  and post-traumatic stress disorder 107–8

  adoption studies 35–6

  age

  and generalized anxiety disorder 87

  and obsessive-compulsive disorder 98

  and panic disorder 77–8

  and phobias 61

  and social phobia 70

  agoraphobia 77, 82

  Ainsworth, Mary 42

  Albert B. 18–19

  alcohol for nerves 49–50

  amygdala 30–32, 64, 109

  Angst 4

  anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) 109

  anxiety disorders

  and brain function 32

  and childhood trauma 39–40

  and cognitive theories 25–7

  ‘anxiety neurosis’ 15–16

  anxiety sensitivity test 83

  anxiolytic drugs 113

  anxious/avoidant attachment style 42, 43

  anxious/resistant attachment style 42–3

  appraisal of situations 23–4

  attachment styles 41–3

  attentional bias 26

  Auden, W. H. 1–2

  autonomic nervous system (ANS) 9

  avoidance strategies 20, 26, 82

  for phobias 62–3

  worry as 89

  B

  Banse, Rainer and Klaus Scherer 6

  Barlow, David 11

  Beck, Aaron T. 24–6, 117

  behavioural desensitization 21

  behavioural theories of anxiety 17–22

  behaviourism and obsessivecompulsive disorder 98–9

  Benedikt, Moritz 4

  benzodiazepines 116–17

  beta-blockers 117

  biological perspectives

  on generalized anxiety disorder 91–2

  on obsessive-compulsive disorder 100–101

  on panic disorder 78–80

  on post-traumatic stress disorder 108–10

  biological preparedness 64

  blood-injection-injury phobias, treatment 119–20

  Bowlby, John 41–2

  brain function

  and generalized anxiety disorder 91–2

  and obsessive-compulsive disorder 100–101

  and phobias 66

  and post-traumatic stress disorder 108–10

  theories of anxiety 27–33

  Breakfast at Tiffany’s (Capote) 1

  Brewin, Chris 108

  Butler, Gillian 117

  C

  camera anxiety 47

  Cannon, Walter 9

  Capote, Truman 1

  Caspi, Avshalom and Terrie Moffitt 38

  Cervantes 65–6

  childhood experiences 38–44

  abuse 39, 83–4

  and generalized anxiety disorder 93

  and obsessive-compulsive disorder 101

  chromosomes 34–5

  Churchill, Winston 85

  cingulotomy 101

  Clark, David 27, 80–2

  and Adrian Wells 71–2, 74

  cognitive avoidance theory of worry 89

  cognitive behaviour therapy (CBT) 22, 112–15, 117–22

  for obsessive-compulsive disorder 99–100

  for phobias 119–20

  for post-traumatic stress disorder 120–1

  self-help 122

  virtual-reality 121–2

  cognitive biases 26

  cognitive enhancers 113–14

  Cognitive Psychology (Neisser) 22

  cognitive theories of anxiety 22–7

  compulsions 95; see also obsessive-compulsive disorder

  conditioning 19–21

  and obsessive-compulsive disorder 98–9

  and phobias 62–5

  confidence

  inspiring in others 53, 57

  and social phobia 72

  CONSORT (Consolidated Standards of Reporting Trials) 111–12

  control

  intolerance of uncertainty 90

  and nerves 56–7

  and panic attacks 79

  parental 40–1

  coping strategies 47–8

  corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) 32

  cortisol (stress hormone) 109

  criticism

  hypersensitivity to 74

  vs. praise 53, 57

  D

  Darwin, Charles 7–9, 75

  Davey, Graham 90

  de Jong, Joop 106

  definitions of anxiety 10–12

  depression vs. generalized anxiety disorder 92–3

  disgust and phobias 65

  DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) 34–5

  ‘dolls that remove worries’ 85

  drugs as treatment for anxiety 113–14, 115–17

  DSM (Diagnostic and Statistical

  Manual of Mental Disorders) 10–11

  dysphoria 11

  E

  ego 16–17

  Ehlers, Anke

  and Peter Breuer 82

  and David Clark 106–8

  Ekman, Paul 6

&nbs
p; emotion

  anxiety as 5–7

  and post-traumatic stress disorder 104

  emotional reasoning 27

  environmental factors 38–44

  in obsessive-compulsive disorder 101

  in social phobia 70

 

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