Pandemic

by Sonia Shah

  50. Elisha P. Renne, The Politics of Polio in Northern Nigeria (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2010), 11, 40.

  51. Declan Walsh, “Taliban Block Vaccinations in Pakistan,” The New York Times, June 18, 2012.

  52. Y. Paul and A. Dawson, “Some Ethical Issues Arising From Polio Eradication Programmes in India,” Bioethics 19, no. 4 (2005): 393–406; Robert Fortner, “Polio in Retreat: New Cases Nearly Eliminated Where Virus Once Flourished,” Scientific American, Oct. 28, 2010.

  53. Declan Walsh, “Polio Crisis Deepens in Pakistan, With New Cases and Killings,” The New York Times, Nov. 26, 2014.

  54. Paul Greenough, “Intimidation, Coercion and Resistance in the Final Stages of the South Asian Smallpox Eradication Campaign, 1973–1975,” Social Science & Medicine 41, no. 5 (1995): 633–45.

  55. Michael Willrich, Pox: An American History (New York: Penguin Press, 2011), 118.

  56. “How the CIA’s Fake Vaccination Campaign Endangers Us All,” Scientific American, May 3, 2013.

  57. “Congo Republic Declares Polio Emergency,” The New York Times, Nov. 9, 2010, 1–3.

  58. WHO Global Alert and Response, “China: WHO Confirmation,” Sept. 1, 2011, www.who.int/csr/don/2011_09_01/en/index.html; “WHO: Pakistan Polio Strain in Syria,” Radio Free Europe, Nov. 12, 2013.

  59. Donald G. McNeil, “Polio’s Return After Near Eradication Prompts a Global Health Warning,” The New York Times, May 5, 2014.

  60. Saad B. Omer et al., “Vaccine Refusal, Mandatory Immunization, and the Risks of Vaccine-Preventable Diseases,” The New England Journal of Medicine 360 (May 7, 2009): 1981–85; “Chinese CDC Admits Vaccine Reactions Cause Paralysis in Chinese Children,” The Refusers, Oct. 10, 2013; Greg Poland, “Improving Adult Immunization and the Way of Sophia: A 12-Step Program,” International Conference on Emerging Infectious Diseases, March 12, 2012, Atlanta, GA.

  61. Warren Jones and Ami Klin, “Attention to Eyes Is Present but in Decline in 2–6-Month-Old Infants Later Diagnosed with Autism,” Nature, Nov. 6, 2013.

  62. Paul A. Offit, “Why Are Pharmaceutical Companies Gradually Abandoning Vaccines?” Health Affairs, May 2005.

  63. “A Pox on My Child: Cool,” The Washington Post, Sept. 20, 2005.

  64. Omer, “Vaccine Refusal, Mandatory Immunization, and the Risks of Vaccine-Preventable Diseases.”

  65. Poland, “Improving Adult Immunization and the Way of Sophia.”

  66. Daniel Salmon et al., “Factors Associated with Refusal of Childhood Vaccines Among Parents of School-Aged Children,” JAMA Pediatrics 159, no. 5 (May 2005): 470–76.

  67. Mike Stobbe, “More Kids Skip School Shots in 8 States,” Associated Press, Nov. 28, 2011.

  68. CDC, “Notes from the Field: Measles Outbreak—Indiana, June–July 2011”; CDC, “U.S. Multi-State Measles Outbreak 2014–2015”; David Siders et al., “Jerry Brown Signs California Vaccine Bill,” The Sacramento Bee, June 30, 2015.

  69. Pro-MED mail, “Measles Update,” Sept. 19, 2011.

  70. Philippa Roxby, “Measles Outbreak Warning as Cases Rise in Europe and UK,” BBC News, May 13, 2011.

  71. Pro-MED mail, “Measles Update.”

  72. “WHO: Europe Must Act on Measles Outbreak,” Dec. 2, 2011, www.telegraph.co.uk.

  73. Susana Ferreira, “Cholera Fallout: Can Haitians Sue the U.N. for the epidemic?” Time, Dec. 13, 2011.

  74. Interview with Mario Joseph, Aug. 14, 2013.

  75. R. S. Hendriksen et al., “Population Genetics of Vibrio cholerae from Nepal in 2010: Evidence on the Origin of the Haitian Outbreak,” mBio 2, no. 4 (2011): e00157-11.

  7. THE CURE

    1. Robert A. Phillips, “The Patho-Physiology of Cholera,” Bulletin of the World Health Organization 28, no. 3 (1963): 297.

    2. Delaporte, Disease and Civilization, 88, 90.

    3. Chambers, The Conquest of Cholera, 168.

    4. David Wootton, Bad Medicine: Doctors Doing Harm Since Hippocrates (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006).

    5. Travis Proulx, Michael Inzlicht, and Eddie Harmon-Jones, “Understanding All Inconsistency Compensation as a Palliative Response to Violated Expectations,” Trends in Cognitive Sciences 16, no. 5 (2012): 285–91.

    6. Thomas S. Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, 4th ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2012).

    7. Wootton, Bad Medicine.

    8. Ibid.

    9. B. A. Foëx, “How the Cholera Epidemic of 1831 Resulted in a New Technique for Fluid Resuscitation,” Emergency Medicine Journal 20, no. 4 (2003): 316–18.

  10. Walter J. Daly and Herbert L. DuPont, “The Controversial and Short-Lived Early Use of Rehydration Therapy for Cholera,” Clinical Infectious Diseases 47, no. 10 (2008): 1315–19.

  11. James Johnson, ed., The Medico-Chirurgical Review, vol. 21, 1832.

  12. Daly and DuPont, “The Controversial and Short-Lived Early Use of Rehydration Therapy for Cholera.”

  13. Anthony R. Mawson, “The Hands of John Snow: Clue to His Untimely Death?”Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health 63, no. 6 (2009): 497–99.

  14. David E. Lilienfeld, “John Snow: The First Hired Gun?” American Journal of Epidemiology 152, no. 1 (2000): 4–9; Johnson, The Ghost Map, 67.

  15. Mawson, “The Hands of John Snow.”

  16. S.W.B. Newsom, “Pioneers in Infection Control: John Snow, Henry Whitehead, the Broad Street Pump, and the Beginnings of Geographical Epidemiology,” The Journal of Hospital Infection 64, no. 3 (2006): 210–16.

  17. Nigel Paneth et al., “A Rivalry of Foulness: Official and Unofficial Investigations of the London Cholera Epidemic of 1854,” American Journal of Public Health 88, no. 10 (1998): 1545–53.

  18. Lilienfeld, “John Snow.”

  19. Ibid.

  20. Mawson, “The Hands of John Snow.”

  21. Lilienfeld, “John Snow.”

  22. Richard L. Guerrant, Benedito A. Carneiro-Filho, and Rebecca A. Dillingham, “Cholera, Diarrhea, and Oral Rehydration Therapy: Triumph and Indictment,” Clinical Infectious Diseases 37, no. 3 (2003): 398–405.

  23. Rosenberg, The Cholera Years, 184.

  24. Porter, The Greatest Benefit, 266.

  25. John S. Haller, “Samson of the Materia Medica: Medical Theory and the Use and Abuse of Calomel: In Nineteenth Century America,” Pharmacy in History 13, no. 2 (1971): 67–76.

  26. Wootton, Bad Medicine.

  27. Thomas W. Clarkson, “The Toxicology of Mercury,” Critical Reviews in Clinical Laboratory Sciences 34, no. 4 (1997): 369–403.

  28. B. S. Drasar and D. Forrest, eds., Cholera and the Ecology of “Vibrio cholerae” (London: Chapman & Hall, 1996), 55.

  29. Stephen Halliday, The Great Stink: Sir Joseph Bazalgette and the Cleansing of the Victorian Metropolis (Mount Pleasant, SC: History Press, 2003); Dale H. Porter, The Life and Times of Sir Goldsworthy Gurney: Gentleman Scientist and Inventor, 1793–1875 (Bethlehem, PA: Lehigh University Press, 1998).

  30. John D. Thompson. “The Great Stench or the Fool’s Argument,” The Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine 64, no. 5 (1991): 529.

  31. Halliday, The Great Stink; Johnson, The Ghost Map, 120; Solomon, Water, 258.

  32. Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions.

  33. Porter, Greatest Benefit, 57.

  34. Comment by David Fisman, Feb. 10, 2015.

  35. Wootton, Bad Medicine.

  36. Ibid.

  37. Echenberg, Africa in the Time of Cholera, 31.

  38. Porter, The Life and Times of Sir Goldsworthy Gurney.

  39. Ibid.

  40. Ibid.

  41. Thompson, “The Great Stench or the Fool’s Argument.”

  42. Halliday, The Great Stink.

  43. “Location of Parliaments in the 13th Century,” www.parliament.uk.

  44. David Boswell Reid, Venti
lation in American Dwellings (New York: Wiley & Halsted, 1858).

  45. Robert Bruegmann, “Central Heating and Forced Ventilation: Origins and Effects on Architectural Design,” Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 37, no. 3 (Oct. 1978): 143–60.

  46. Thompson, “The Great Stench or the Fool’s Argument.”

  47. Halliday, The Great Stink.

  48. Porter, The Life and Times of Sir Goldsworthy Gurney.

  49. Koeppel, Water for Gotham, 141.

  50. Blake, Water for the Cities, 171.

  51. Koeppel, Water for Gotham, 287.

  52. Duffy, A History of Public Health, 398, 418.

  53. Rosenberg, The Cholera Years, 184; Allen, “5 Points Had Good Points.”

  54. Snowden, Naples in the Time of Cholera, 190.

  55. Evans, Death in Hamburg, 292.

  56. Snowden, Naples in the Time of Cholera, 69, 100, 190.

  57. Evans, Death in Hamburg.

  58. Nicholas Bakalar, “Milestones in Combating Cholera,” The New York Times, Oct. 1, 2012.

  59. Norman Howard-Jones, “Gelsenkirchen Typhoid Epidemic of 1901, Robert Koch, and the Dead Hand of Max von Pettenkofer,” BMJ 1, no. 5845 (1973): 103.

  60. Alfred S. Evans, “Pettenkofer Revisited: The Life and Contributions of Max von Pettenkofer (1818–1901),” The Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine 46, no. 3 (1973): 161; Alfred S. Evans, “Two Errors in Enteric Epidemiology: The Stories of Austin Flint and Max von Pettenkofer,” Review of Infectious Diseases 7, no. 3 (1985): 434–40.

  61. Echenberg, Africa in the Time of Cholera, 9.

  62. Evans, Death in Hamburg, 497–98; Evans, “Two Errors in Enteric Epidemiology”; Christopher Hamlin, Cholera: The Biography (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009), 177.

  63. Evans, Death in Hamburg, 292.

  64. Alfredo Morabia, “Epidemiologic Interactions, Complexity, and the Lonesome Death of Max von Pettenkofer,” American Journal of Epidemiology 166, no. 11 (2007): 1233–38.

  65. Melosi, The Sanitary City, 94; S. J. Burian et al., “Urban Wastewater Management in the United States: Past, Present, and Future,” Journal of Urban Technology 7 (2000): 33–62.

  66. Ewald, Evolution of Infectious Disease, 72–73.

  67. Hamlin, Cholera, 242.

  68. Guerrant, “Cholera, Diarrhea, and Oral Rehydration Therapy.”

  69. Katherine Harmon, “Can a Vaccine Cure Haiti’s Cholera?” Scientific American, Jan. 12, 2012.

  70. Anwar Huq et al., “Simple Sari Cloth Filtration of Water Is Sustainable and Continues to Protect Villagers from Cholera in Matlab, Bangladesh,” mBio 1, no. 1 (2010): e00034-10.

  71. S. Fannin et al., “A Cluster of Kaposi’s Sarcoma and Pneumocystis Carinii Pneumonia Among Homosexual Male Residents of Los Angeles and Range Counties, California,” MMWR 31, no. 32 (June 18, 1982): 305–307.

  72. Charlie Cooper, “Ebola Outbreak: Why Has ‘Big Pharma’ Failed Deadly Virus’ Victims?” The Independent, Sept. 7, 2014.

  73. Marc H. V. Van Regenmortel, “Reductionism and Complexity in Molecular Biology,” EMBO Reports 5, no. 11 (2004): 1016.

  74. Andrew C. Ahn et al., “The Limits of Reductionism in Medicine: Could Systems Biology Offer an Alternative?” PLoS Medicine 3, no. 6 (2006): e208.

  75. Laura H. Kahn, “Confronting Zoonoses, Linking Human and Veterinary Medicine,” Emerging Infectious Diseases 12, no. 4 (2006): 556.

  76. Ewan M. Harrison et al., “A Shared Population of Epidemic Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus 15 Circulates in Humans and Companion Animals,” mBio 5, no. 3 (2014): e00985-13.

  77. Mathieu Albert et al., “Biomedical Scientists’ Perception of the Social Sciences in Health Research,” Social Science & Medicine 66, no. 12 (2008): 2520–31.

  78. Interview with Dr. Larry Hribar, Feb. 8, 2012; “More than 1,000 Exposed to Dengue in Florida: CDC,” Reuters, July 13, 2010.

  8. THE REVENGE OF THE SEA

    1. Sonia Shah, Crude: The Story of Oil (New York: Seven Stories Press, 2004), 161.

    2. Environmental Protection Agency, “Climate Change Indicators in the United States: Ocean Heat,” Oct. 29, 2014.

    3. Rachel Carson, The Sea Around Us (New York: Oxford University Press, 1951), ix.

    4. Sir Alister Hardy, Great Waters: A Voyage of Natural History to Study Whales, Plankton, and the Waters of the Southern Ocean (New York: Harper, 1967).

    5. R. R. Colwell, J. Kaper, and S. W. Joseph, “Vibrio cholerae, Vibrio parahaemolyticus, and Other Vibrios: Occurrence and Distribution in Chesapeake Bay,” Science, 198, no. 4315 (Oct. 28, 1977): 394–96.

    6. Interview with Rita Colwell.

    7. Anwar Huq, R. Bradley Sack, and Rita Colwell, “Cholera and Global Ecosystems,” in Aron and Patz, Ecosystem Change and Public Health, 333.

    8. Arnold Taylor, “Plankton and the Gulf Stream,” New Scientist, March 1991.

    9. Huq, Sack, and Colwell, “Cholera and Global Ecosystems,” 336; Luigi Vezzulli, Rita R. Colwell, and Carla Pruzzo, “Ocean Warming and Spread of Pathogenic Vibrios in the Aquatic Environment,” Microbial Ecology 65, no. 4 (2013): 817–25; Graeme C. Hays, Anthony J. Richardson, and Carol Robinson, “Climate Change and Marine Plankton,” Trends in Ecology & Evolution 20, no. 6 (2005): 337–44; Gregory Beaugrand, Luczak Christophe, and Edwards Martin, “Rapid Biogeographical Plankton Shifts in the North Atlantic Ocean,” Global Change Biology 15, no. 7 (2009): 1790–1803.

  10. William H. McNeill, Plagues and Peoples (Garden City, NY: Anchor Press, 1976), 283.

  11. Oscar Felsenfeld, “Some Observations on the Cholera (El Tor) Epidemic in 1961–62,” Bulletin of the World Health Organization 28, no. 3 (1963): 289–96.

  12. Ibid.

  13. Rudolph Hugh, “A Comparison of Vibrio cholerae Pacini and Vibrio eltor Pribram,” International Bulletin of Bacteriological Nomenclature and Taxonomy 15, no. 1 (1965): 61–68.

  14. Paul H. Kratoska, ed., Southeast Asia Colonial History: High Imperialism (1890s–1930s) (New York: Routledge, 2001).

  15. C. E. de Moor, “Paracholera (El Tor): Enteritis Choleriformis El Tor van Loghem,” Bulletin of the World Health Organization 2 (1949): 5–17.

  16. Agus P. Sari et al., “Executive Summary: Indonesia and Climate Change: Working Paper on Current Status and Policies,” Department for International Development and the World Bank, March 2007; Bernhard Glaeser and Marion Glaser, “Global Change and Coastal Threats: The Indonesian Case. An Attempt in Multi-Level Social-Ecological Research,” Human Ecology Review 17, no. 2 (2010); Kathleen Schwerdtner Máñez et al., “Water Scarcity in the Spermonde Archipelago, Sulawesi, Indonesia: Past, Present and Future,” Environmental Science & Policy 23 (2012): 74–84.

  17. Felsenfeld, “Some Observations on the Cholera (El Tor) Epidemic.”

  18. “Far East Pressing Anti-Cholera Steps,” The New York Times, Aug. 20, 1961; “Chinese Reds Blame U.S. in Cholera Rise,” The New York Times, Aug. 19, 1961.

  19. C. Sharma et al., “Molecular Evidence That a Distinct Vibrio cholerae 01 Biotype El Tor Strain in Calcutta May Have Spread to the African Continent,” Journal of Clinical Microbiology 36, no. 3 (March 1998): 843–44.

  20. Echenberg, Africa in the Time of Cholera, 125–27.

  21. Oscar Felsenfeld, “Present Status of the El Tor Vibrio Problem,” Bacteriological Reviews 28, no. 1 (1964): 72; Colwell, “Global Climate and Infectious Disease.”

  22. Iván J. Ramírez, Sue C. Grady, and Michael H. Glantz, “Reexamining El Niño and Cholera in Peru: A Climate Affairs Approach,” Weather, Climate, and Society 5 (2013): 148–61.

  23. Bill Manson, “The Ocean Has a Long Memory,” San Diego Reader, Feb. 12, 1998; Rosa R. Mouriño-Pérez, “Oceanography and the Seventh Cholera Pandemic,” Epidemiology 9, no. 3 (1998): 355–57.

  24. Ramírez, Grady, and Glantz, “Reexamining El Niño and Cholera in Peru�
�; María Ana Fernández-Álamo and Jaime Färber-Lorda, “Zooplankton and the Oceanography of the Eastern Tropical Pacific: A Review,” Progress in Oceanography 69, no. 2 (2006): 318–59; Bert Rein et al., “El Niño Variability off Peru During the Last 20,000 Years,” Paleoceanography 20, no. 4 (2005); Jaime Martinez-Urtaza et al., “Emergence of Asiatic Vibrio Diseases in South America in Phase with El Niño,” Epidemiology 19, no. 6 (2008): 829–37.

  25. Vezzulli, Colwell, and Pruzzo, “Ocean Warming and Spread of Pathogenic Vibrios”; Rafael Montilla et al., “Serogroup Conversion of Vibrio Cholerae non-O1 to Vibrio Cholerae O1: Effect of Growth State of Cells, Temperature, and Salinity,” Canadian Journal of Microbiology 42, no. 1 (1996): 87–93; Luigi Vezzulli et al., “Dual Role Colonization Factors Connecting Vibrio cholerae’s Lifestyles in Human and Aquatic Environments Open New Perspectives for Combating Infectious Diseases,” Current Opinions in Biotechnology 19 (2008): 254–59.

  26. P. R. Epstein, “Algal Blooms in the Spread and Persistence of Cholera,” BioSystems 31, no. 2 (1993): 209–221; Jeffrey W. Turner et al., “Plankton Composition and Environmental Factors Contribute to Vibrio Seasonality,” The ISME Journal 3, no. 9 (2009): 1082–92.

  27. Connie Lam et al., “Evolution of Seventh Cholera Pandemic and Origin of 1991 Epidemic, Latin America,” Emerging Infectious Diseases 16, no. 7 (2010): 1130.

  28. “Cholera Epidemic Kills 51 in Peru,” The Times (London), Feb. 11, 1991.

  29. Simon Strong, “Peru Minister Quits in Cholera Row,” The Independent, March 19, 1991; Malcolm Coad, “Peru’s Cholera Epidemic Spreads to Its Neighbors,” The Guardian, April 18, 1991; “Cholera Cases Confirmed Near Border with U.S.,” Montreal Gazette, March 18, 1992; William Booth, “Cholera’s Mysterious Journey North,” The Washington Post, Aug. 26, 1991; “Baywatch Filming Hit by Cholera Alert,” London Evening Standard, July 29, 1992; Barbara Turnbull, “Flight Hit by Cholera, 2 Sought in Canada,” Toronto Star, Feb. 22, 1992; Les Whittington, “Mexico; Traffickers Blamed for Spread of Cholera,” Ottawa Citizen, Sept. 11, 1991.