Ptolemy I, 36, 38, 157, 162
Ptolemy II, 36
Punt, 32, 34, 59
qadi, 91, 93
Qana, 62
qilin, 102
Quraish tribe, 69–71, 137
Qussay, 69
rabbits, 132
rafiq (companion), 6
railroads, 310, 318, 326–27, 331–33, 361
Raleigh, Walter, 219
Reagan, Ronald, 369
Reciprocal Trade Agreements Act of 1934, 353
Red Rover, 293
Red Sea, 32, 34, 36–38, 59, 73, 75, 87, 89, 117, 128, 136, 178, 181–82, 190, 192, 232
coffee trade across, 244–45
pirate-infested waters, 128
raids against Arab shipping in, 153
Reform Act of 1832, 307, 310
refrigeration, 332
Reginald of Châtillon, 153, 182
reindeer, 22
Reis, Piri, 182
rent prices, convergence of, 340
Republican vs. Democratic tariff policies, 349–50, 362
Revolutionary Settlement of 1689, 248
Ricardo, Abraham Israel, 248, 304
Ricardo, David, 17, 248
“classical economics,” 340
death, 307
on free trade, 304–7, 313, 315, 319, 338–39, 340
law of comparative advantage, 18, 305
Ricardo, Joseph Israel, 304
rice, 14, 90, 237, 283, 340. See also grain
Rodinson, Maxime, 70
Rodrik, Dani, 383, 384
Roger II, King of Sicily, 87
Rogowski, Ronald, 362
political interpretation of Stolper-Samuelson Theorem, 342-49, 362, 421n25
Roman Empire, 10. See also Elagabalus
fall of, 40–42, 53, 116
incense imports from Arabia Felix, 62, 64
Indian Ocean and, 4
trade with China, 2–5, 8, 42, 78
trade and diplomatic relations with India, 10
Romanus Pontifex, 167
“Royal Adventurers into Africa,” 273
Royal African Company (RAC), 273, 274
Run, 227, 229, 230
Russell, Lord John, 312
Rustichello, 77
Sachs, Jeffrey, 373, 375
safety net, 380, 382–83. See also social welfare programs
saffron, 112
sago palm, 115
Saladin, 76, 118, 123, 124
Samarkand, 154
Samsi, Queen of Arabia, 56
Samuelson, Paul, 339, 342, 366, 383
sandalwood, 90
Sandwich, Lord, 273
Santa Maria, 215
Santangel, Luis de, 165
Saracens, 153
Saronic Gulf, 47
Sassanid (Persian) empire, 67
Sassoon, David, 298
Say, Léon, 344
Schlesinger, Arthur M. Sr., 241
scurvy, 170, 172, 176
seals, 31
Seattle, riots in, 366
Seljuk Turks, 118
Sequeria, Lopez de, 183
sericum, 2
Serrão, Francisco, 183, 185–86, 188, 195, 196
Seven Years’ War, 241–42, 302
Shabwah, 62, 64, 65
sharia. See Islamic law
ship travel
dangers and hardships, 6–7, 84
farmers and, 23
vs. land travel, 4, 6, 24, 331
Stone Age, 23
shipping container, 361, 423n49
ships, 22
steam vs. sail, 326–30
Siam, 101, 107, 109, 285
Sicily, 43, 46, 47, 50, 74, 76, 118, 206
Athenian expedition to, 43
Siemens, Charles William, 326
“silent trade,” 21, 61
silk, 1–4, 12, 41, 66, 82, 104, 192, 193, 203
in Britain, 254–55, 257, 261
camels used to ship, 12, 58
China and, 1, 2, 8, 40, 90, 204
origin and history, 199
Spain and, 200, 203, 204
Silk Road, 4, 57, 75, 77, 89, 91, 98, 113, 117, 130, 134, 137, 139
silkworms, 2, 200
Silva, Nuño da, 215
silver, 10–11, 30, 41–42, 111, 192, 193, 202
as internationally recognized currency, 29, 199
opium and, 287, 289, 290
Sinai Desert, 21, 32, 59
Sinbad the Sailor, 87
“Sinbad’s Way,” 89, 117, 136, 232
skins, animal, 22
slave soldiers. See mamluk slave system
slavery and slave trade, 83, 85, 111, 122, 271–79, 296
African, 272–74, 296
mamluks and Black Sea route, 119
Mongols and, 124–25, 127, 129
statistics, 275
sugar and, 271
in United States, 320
Venice and, 111, 119, 124, 127, 130
smallpox, 131, 133, 135
Smith, Adam, 8, 313, 340
on East India Company in the Bengal, 283
on free trade, 282, 292, 294, 304, 319, 338
impact on policy, 283
on role of government, 283
Wealth of Nations, 258, 292, 304, 305, 315
Smoot, Reed, 351
Smoot-Hawley Tariff, 338, 351–55, 359
social welfare programs, 379
Socotra, 38, 136, 181. See also Dioscordia
Solomon, King, 34
Song Dynasty, 91, 98
“sound dues,” 239
Sousa, Garcia de, 184
South Carolina, 272, 321–23, 418n14
South Sea Bubble, collapse of, 262
Spain, 162. See also specific topics
Caribbean and, 267
Moluccas and, 226
Philippines and, 200
vs. Portugal, 167, 168, 189, 197
Portugal’s independence from, 209
silk industry, 200, 203, 204
union with Portugal, 208
Spanish barbers/bloodletters in Mexico City, 198, 203, 204
Spanish dollar. See piece of eight
Sparta, 47
Spice Islands, 78, 105, 111–17, 127, 141, 152–53, 162, 183, 185, 214
Babullah’s rule over, 197
Dutch conquest of, 264
Magalhães and, 186
Portugal and, 185, 187, 189, 191, 193, 200
Revolt of Babullah, 196
Spain and, 187, 189, 193, 200
spices in, 111, 113
VOC and, 220–221, 226, 229–32, 234
spice trade, 110–17, 153
Aceh and, 191
Cairo and, 97, 111, 118, 190, 191
Venice and, 77, 110, 111, 119, 153, 156, 190, 191
spices, 77, 90, 104, 110–117. See also incense
medicinal properties, 112
Moluccan, 113, 115–17, 243
spinning machines, 254, 262
Sri Lanka, 111, 116, 152, 212, 232, 250
Stamp Act of 1765, 241
Stamper, Norm, 366
steam power, 38, 326–30, 349, 373
steam-sail boundary, 327
Stein, Gil, 31
Stolper, Wolfgang, 339, 341–42, 366
Stolper-Samuelson theorem, 342–44, 349, 361, 362, 377, 378
Ronald Rogowski and 342–49, 362, 421n25
stone tools, 8, 22
Story, James, 216
Strabo, 116, 162
Strait of Hormuz, 26, 38, 368, 370
Strait of Malacca, 52, 82, 101, 103, 192, 292, 368, 371
Stuyvesant, Peter, 198, 209
Suez Canal, 329–30, 337, 369
ancient, 36–37, 73
Sufis, 244
sugar, 205–8, 243, 253, 267
England and, 205, 267
grinding season, 277
history, 206, 267
production, 205
slave labor and, 271
sugar demographics, 278
Suma Oriental of
Tomé Pires, 104, 105, 109
Sumeria, 20, 26, 27–28, 31
Sunda Strait, 192, 210, 218, 234
Surinam, 207, 209, 250, 268
Swansea, 317
Sweden, 52, 74, 239, 379
Syracuse, 43, 46
Syria, 67, 68, 70, 129, 138, 153
Taif, 68, 70
Taiwan, 235
Talas, battle of, 74
Tang dynasty, 74, 79, 86, 138
tarabagans, 131, 133, 134
tariffs, See free trade; taxation
Tariff Act of 1832, 321
Tariff of Abominations (1828 Act), 321
tariff reduction in Europe, “golden era” of (1860–1880), 313–15, 339
tariff wars of 1930s, 351
Tariq ibn Ziyad, 74
Tartars, 140. See also Mongols
tax rates, 82, 97, 194, 261, 265, 349
taxation, 69, 107–8, 241, 301, 308, 379–81, 384. See also free trade
Chinese system, 83
plague and, 149
redistributive, 379
ruler’s right to tax, 283
without representation, 241–42
tax(es).
excise, 248
import, 64, 83, 239, 258, 266, 297, 301, 303, 310, 311–15, 319
income, 320
land, 260, 283
tea, 83, 240–43, 264–67, 330
China and, 264, 287
contraband, 265
England and, 241, 242, 264–67, 287
opium and, 287, 290, 294, 295
Tea Act, 242
Tenochtitlán, 131
Ternate, 113–15, 188, 195, 196, 226
terrorism, 140, 364, 369–71, 376
textiles, 32, 104, 111, 180, 211, 240, 253–57, 274, 278, 322, 340, 362–63. See also cotton, linen, silk, wool
cotton, 253
East India Company and, 243, 264
Indian, 104, 253, 254, 264, 299
thar (retribution), 67
Theodosia, 49, 125
Third Republic, 343
Thomna, 64
Thompson, Sir William, 336
Thoreau, Henry David, 333
Thousand Nights and a Night (Book of the), 87
Thucydides, 43–46, 135
Tiberius, 10
Tidore, 113–14, 188–89, 196, 226
Tiglath-pileser III, 56
Tigris River, 26, 81, 89,154
tin, 27–28, 42, 106, 316
tobacco, 14, 239, 240, 268, 278, 288, 299
Tokugawa shogunate, 194, 234
tools, See stone tools
Toqtai, 130
Tordesillas, Treaty of, 168–69, 176, 187
Tory Party, 297, 310
Toscanelli, Paolo dal Pozzo, 162
Townshend Act, 241, 242
trade
dependency on continuous flow of, 9
diasporas, 31, 32, 38, 65, 81, 160, 173, 203
direct, long-distance, 34, 35
innate tendency to, 8
lessons from the history of, 367
trade wars causing real wars, 356
trilemma of, 67
“trade winds,” origin of the term, 11
transportbrief, 236
Travels of Marco Polo, The (Polo), 78, 81, 96, 97
treasure fleets. See Zheng He.
Trefler, Daniel, 381
triangular trade pattern, 278
tribute-for-gift exchange, 285
Trinidad, 188, 189, 201
Trocki, Carl, 292
Truchess, Heinrich, 144
Truchy, Henri, 345
Tudor, Frederic, 332, 333, 335
Tudors, 215, 216
Tughluq, Muhammad, 92, 93
tumungam, 107
Turkey, 197, 216, 256–57, 288, 370. See also Ottoman Empire
Turks, 122, 190, 232, 240
Tuscany, 332
Tyre, 118, 127
Umayyads, 74, 75, 81, 117, 121, 147
Underwood Tariff, 349
“undress,” 255
United States, 241
Civil War, 263–64, 319, 322, 324
control over shipping lanes in 20th century, 43
cotton and, 308
income inequalities, 377
shipbuilding in, 328
slavery in, 276
South, 320, 321
trade policy, 319–24, 338
transport in, 324, 326
Ur, 16, 26
Urdaneta, Andrés de, 202
Uruk, 25
Valle, Pietro della, 246
van Linschoten, Jan Huyghen, 218
van Neck, Jacob, 219
van Oldenbarnevelt, Johan, 220
Venice, 77, 106, 110–11, 120, 124, 180, 192
Byzantines and, 120, 125
coffee and, 246, 247
Dutch and, 234, 240
Egypt and, 110, 119, 120, 123, 124
Genoa and, 77, 106, 111, 112, 117, 119, 125, 127, 156, 160
Ottomans and, 190
plague and, 143, 146
Portuguese and, 180, 185, 190, 191
slave trade and, 111, 119, 124, 127, 130
spice trade and, 77, 110, 111, 119, 153, 156, 190, 191, 231
textile industry, 240
Turks and, 190
vulnerability of, 43, 51
Vergulde Draek, 212
Versailles, 247
vessels, sewn-skin, 22
Via Sacra, 40
Victoria, 188, 189
Victoria, Queen, 333
Vienna, 247
Villehardouin, Geffroi de, 119
Vivaldi, Ugolino and Vadino, 156, 162
Voyage to Arabia Felix, A (Jean de La Roque), 247
wage convergence, 340, 341. See also labor
wako marauders, 102
Walden Pond, 333
Wales, 316
war, caused by trade wars, 355
War of 1812, 293
warehouses. See funduqs; horrea
Warmington, E. H., 41
Warner, Andrew, 373, 375
watches, tariffs on foreign, 351
watercraft, 22
Wealth of Nations (Smith), 258, 292, 304, 305, 315
Weeding, Thomas, 291
West India Company (WIC), 198, 208, 209, 268
Whampoa, 285, 289, 290
wheat and wheat prices, 14, 44, 46, 90, 301–4, 306–7, 312, 315, 331, 339, 340, 343, 347
Wilcox, Clair, 357
Willem III (King William of England), 240, 248, 260
Wilson, Woodrow, 349
wood, 32, 150. See also lumber; ships, metal vs. wooden
Wood, Adrian, 380
wool, 57, 111, 240, 257, 259
World Trade Organization (WTO), 364
Third Ministerial Conference, 366
World War II, 356
trade following, 359
Wyeth, Nathaniel, 332
Xenopsylla cheopsis, 134. See fleas
Xerxes, 48
Yasir al-Balisi, 129
Year of the Elephant, 70
Yemen, 65, 128, 212, 249. See also Arabia Felix
coffee trade and, 249
Yrissari, Xavier, 292. See also Jardine Matheson and Company
Yusuf Asai, 69
Zaccaria, Benedetto, 142, 156
Zadar, 119, 120
Zaitun, 86, 87, 94, 96, 106
zamorin, 97, 109, 175
Zheng He, 75, 99–103, 149
Zhu Di, 100–102, 109
Zhu Yuanzhang, 99
zielkoopers (“soul buyers”), 236
zielverkoopers (“soul sellers”), 235, 236
Zweig, Stefan, 166
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
1. This ancient rock carving from Bergbuten in Norway clearly shows a hunter in the bow of a sewn skin boat. The paddler stands in the rear. Source: The Earliest Ships, Conway Maritime Press.
2. The north Arabian saddle, which has been in continuous use for the past two thousand years, solved the difficult problem of mounting cargo over the soft, moveable hump o
f the dromedary camel. In one day, a single driver leading three to six animals could convey over two tons of goods thirty miles. Source: The Pastoral Taureg, Thames & Hudson.
3. A Bactrian camel struggles to rise under its load. This Tang Dynasty (ca. ninth century AD) ceramic was found in the tomb of a Chinese Silk Road merchant. By courtesy of the Field Museum, Chicago.
4. Marco Polo’s fantastical but true tales of places where widows threw themselves on their husbands’ funeral pyres, where hashish-addled assassins thought themselves in heaven, and where the sun never set in summer nor rose in winter evoked widespread ridicule in Europe.
5. The modern government of China has revived the story of eunuch admiral Zheng He’s seven massive expeditions into the Indian Ocean in the fifteenth century in order to demonstrate its peaceful intentions in the twenty-first century. By courtesy of David Kootnikoff.
6. Doge Enrico Dandolo saw the Fourth Crusade as a threat to Venice’s spice trade with Egypt. He sabotaged the expedition and at age ninety led its remaining forces in the sacking of Constantinople. From the Granger Collection, New York.
7. Infante Dom Henrique (later known as Prince Henry the Navigator), the youngest son of King João I and Queen Philippa of Portugal, participated in the kingdom’s Moroccan campaigns. On beholding the edge of the vast North African desert, he realized the futility of his mother’s dream of a trans-Saharan route to the Indies. After returning home, he sponsored the fifteenth-century Portuguese exploration of the African coast, which eventually lead to the rounding of the Cape of Good Hope by Diaz and da Gama.
8. Portugal’s slow crawl down the African coast in the fifteenth century foundered on the adverse winds which grew stronger the farther the vessels proceeded south. Vasco da Gama solved the problem with a “wide swing” to the southwest before heading eastward to the Cape of Good Hope. His reputation for brutality preceded him in most of the African and Asian ports he subsequently visited and snarled trade and diplomatic relations. By courtesy of National Maritime Museum, Greenwich, England.
9. Afonso de Albuquerque built Portugal’s empire in the Indian Ocean. He seized the critical chokepoints at Malacca and Hormuz, but could not stanch the flow of spices on Muslim ships through Bab el Mandeb. From the Granger Collection, New York.
Splendid Exchange, A Page 57