Tacitus (P. or G. Cornelius Tacitus), 56–117 CE
Tacitus was a senator who wrote several books during the reign of Emperor Trajan. In De Origine et Situ Germanorum (more usually called simply Germania) published in 98 CE, Tacitus summarises what was then known about the geography and ethnography of the lands beyond the Danube and Rhine rivers. From the Germania we learn of the Romans’ understanding of some forty nations of Germanic people as well as of their misconceptions, stereotypes and prejudices a century after Drusus’ expeditions. He lauds Drusus for his audacious amphibious campaign of 12 BCE (Germania 34).
In his Ab Excessu Divi Augusti (more conveniently nowadays referred to as the Annales or Annals) published in 117 CE, he describes the expeditions of Germanicus, Drusus’ son, and reveals that much of the military planning for the campaign of 16 CE drew on his father’s pioneering work (Annales 2.6). He is one of the two sources to mention the fossa Drusiana – ‘Drusus canal’ (Annales 2.8). Tacitus’ work drew upon Pliny the Elder’s Bella Germaniae for details of Drusus’ and Germanicus’ campaigns in Germania Magna (Annales 2.69).
Valerius Maximus, c. 20 BCE–50 CE
Little is known about Valerius Maximus’ personal life. During the reign of Emperor Tiberius he wrote Factorum ac Dictorum Memorabilium Libri IX or Memorable Deeds and Sayings in Nine Books, which is a collection of about a thousand stories chosen for the moral guidance they offered, each arranged under one of several themes. Maximus gives us our only insight into Drusus’ sex life and his devotion to Antonia (Factorum et Dictorum 4.3.3). Under ‘kindness and compassion’ Maximus describes Tiberius’ 200-mile ride to be by his brother’s side on learning of his fatal wound, while Drusus is concerned that his brother is accorded the respect he deserves upon his arrival (Factorum ac Dictorum 5.5.3). Maximus chose the story as an example of brotherly devotion, and compared the Claudius brothers to Castor and Pollux. Livy was one of his principal sources.
Velleius Paterculus (C. or M. Velleius Paterculus), c. 19 BCE–c. 31 CE
From 4 CE Paterculus saw eight years of active service in Germania and Pannonia under Tiberius, first as a praefectus equitum and then as a legatus. His Historiae Romanae or Compendium of Roman History in two volumes begins with the diaspora of the Greeks after the fall of Troy and ends with the death of Livia Drusilla (29 CE). The work is regarded as that of a courtly annalist rather than a critical historian, offering a particularly gushing eulogy of Tiberius’ exploits in Book II. He includes a short but flattering description of Drusus’ personality and talents (Historiae Romanae 2.97.2–3).
2. Coins
No coins were minted during Drusus the Elder’s lifetime that mention the man by name or show his portrait. However, an aureus of Augustus (RIC 52/BMC 77) and the lower denomination denarius (RIC 165a; plate 22) of similar design minted in 15 BCE is generally accepted as showing Drusus and Tiberius symbolically offering olive branches to Augustus who is seated on a sella curulis upon a raised dais in celebration of the victories over the Raeti, Vindelici and kingdom of Noricum. A denarius minted by the tresvir monetalis L. Caninius Gallus (RIC 416/RSC 383; plate 27) shows a kneeling Germanic tribesman offering up a flag standard or vexillum and its date, 12 BCE, suggests it was issued to commemorate the successful ending of the first year of Drusus’ campaign.
The only coins showing the profile of Drusus’ head were minted almost fifty years later under his son, then Emperor Claudius (42–54 CE). This superb series of coins commemorates Drusus’ German wars and several bear the slogan ‘DE GERMANIS’. There is wide variation in the portraits on the obverse according to the skill of the engraver of the die. A gold aureus (RIC 69/BMC 95) and silver denarius (RIC 70/BMC 97) share the same reverse showing the triumphal arch erected after Drusus’ death by order of the Senate. The slogan runs the entire length of the entablature. Drusus’ statue shows him on a horse, its front legs facing to the right rearing up as the rider prepares to thrust his spear down. In yet another version (RIC 72, RIC77/BMC 102) the statue of Drusus is shown cantering from right to left, his right arm outstretched in a gesture of authority. However in some versions, the letters ‘DE’ and ‘GERM’ are split to fit the available space with the result that the first word is on top of the arch, while the second is in the entablature between the two columns. Modillions or capitals are shown projecting from either side of the building supporting the cornice. Drusus is shown with his horse leaping and his spear held horizontally ready to brace for impact. In this alternative version captives sit crosslegged at the base of each of the trophies with hands tied behind their backs. A brass sestertius (RIC 114/BMC 188) was also minted showing the arch, but this does not display the slogan and on this coin the mounted statue of Drusus is shown with his right arm raised ready to thrust his spear down. The differences in the depiction of the arch on the coins may possibly be explained by the fact that some show the front side of the archway, while the others show the back, though it may simply be that the die makers were working from different drawings or working from memory.
Another design is a silver denarius (RIC 74/BMC 107) showing two hexagonal shields laid over each other to form an ‘X’, placed on top of crossed spears, trumpets and a vexillum. The last in the series shows Drusus’ portrait on the obverse and Claudius sitting togate on a curule chair surrounded by Germanic spoils (RIC 93/BMC 157).
Coins issued for Drusus the Elder should not be confused with those of Drusus Caesar (Drusus the Younger) who was the son of Tiberius.
3. Inscriptions
A few inscriptions survive that mention Drusus the Elder. One (Inscriptiones Italiae 13.2.117) was carved in Drusus’ lifetime and erected at the Mausoleum of Augustus. It refers to an event held on 30 January 9 BCE:
FERIAE EX S[ENATVS] C[ONSVLTO] QVO[D EO] DIE ARA PACIS AVGVSTA[E IN CAMPO] MARTIO DEDICATA [E]ST DRVSO ET CRISPINO C[ONSVLES]
Holidays, by decree of the Senate, because on this day the Altar of Peace of Augustus in the Campus Martius was dedicated in the year of the consulships of [Nero Claudius] Drusus and [T. Quinctius] Crispinus.
Arguably the first known inscription to use the posthumously awarded agnomen Germanicus was on an altar (CIL VI.37063). Intriguingly, the surface of the inscription infers that the workmen had already begun carving the letters when they were told to add the honorary title and had to make adjustments within the moulded border for the additional letters to fit:
NERO CLAVDIVS DRVSVS GERMANIC[VS]
T[ITVS] QVINCTIVS CRISPINVS CO[N]S[VLES]
EX S[ENATVS] C[ONSVLTO] RESTITVER[VNT]
Nero Claudius Drusus Germanicus, Titus Quinctius Crispinus, Consuls, by decree of the Senate, restored [this altar].
Two milestones have been found along the route of the via Claudia Augusta set up by Drusus’ son Emperor Claudius. The first (CIL V.8003) was discovered in 1552 at Rablà near Merano and is now displayed at the Museo archeologico dell’Alto Adige (South Tyrol Museum of Archaeology), Bolzano, a copy having been erected at the original find site. It reads:
TI[BERIVS] CLAVDIVS CAESAR
AVGVSTVS GERMAN[ICVS]
PONT[IFEX] MAX[IMVS] TRIB[VNICIA] POT[ESTATE] VI
CO[N]S[VL] DESIG[NATVS] IIII IMP[ERATOR] XI P[ATER] P[ATRIE]
[VI]AM CLAVDIAM AVGVSTAM
QUAM DRVSVS PATER ALPIBVS
BELLO PATEFACTIS DEREXERAT
MVNIT A FLVMINE PADO AT
[F]LVMEN DANVVIVM PER [MILIA]
P[ASSVM] CC[CL]
Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus, Pontifex Maximus, holding the tribunician power for the sixth time, the office of consul four times, acclaimed Imperator eleven times, father of the Fatherland, built the via Claudia Augusta, the route of which his father Drusus had opened up across the Alps through war, from the Po River to the Danube River, a distance of 350 miles.
The second milestone (CIL V.8002) found at Cesiomaggiore at Feltre, Italy near the Villa Tauro alle Centenère in 1786, reads:
TI[BERIVS] CLAVDIVS F[ILIVS]
CAESAR AV
GVSTVS GERMA
NICVS PONTIFEX MAXI
MVS TRIBVNICIA POTESTA
TE VI CO[N]SVL] IV IMP[ERATOR] XI P[ATER] P[ATRIE]
CENSOR VIAM CLAVDIAM
AVGUSTAM QVAM DRVSVS
PATER ALPIBVS BELLO PATE
FACTIS DEREX[E]RAT MVNIT AB
ALTINO VSQVE AD FLVMEN
DANVVIVM M[ILIA] P[ASSVVM] CCCL
Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus, son (of Drusus), Pontifex Maximus, holding the tribunician power for the sixth time, the office of consul four times, acclaimed Imperator eleven times, father of the Fatherland, Censor, built the via Claudia Augusta, the route of which his father Drusus had opened up across the Alps through war, from Altinum to the Danube River, a distance of 350 miles.
According to Clara A. Holzhauer’s doctoral thesis An Epigraphic Commentary on Suetonius’ Life of Tiberius (University of Pennsylvania, 1918) a few inscriptions citing Drusus are simple and dedicated to him alone, including CIL V.3109 from Vicetia, 4310 from Brixia; and CIA 3.443 on a marble base in an arch north of the Erectheum on the Acropolis of Athens dedicated by the people of the city. Several inscriptions specifically name him as the brother of Tiberius, including CIL IX.3663 from Marruvium; Dessau 8787 from near Troy; and, in so far as they are dedicated to Livia as the mother of both Tiberius and Drusus, CIL II.2038 from Anticaria; IX.3304 from Superaequum; XI.1165 from Veleia. A number of inscriptions confirm his activities in Germany, such as CIL II.2038; IX.2443, 3304, 3663; and Eph. Ep. 4.775.
4. Sculptures
Ara Pacis Augustae, Rome
On the south facing enclosure wall, one figure in the procession is conspicuous by his attire (plate 7). He is the only male figure shown wearing the paludamentum, the military cloak, in contrast to the others who wear togas; and caligae, the robust, open sandals worn by soldiers, which compare to the others who wear closed civilian boots. The consensus opinion is the figure is that of Nero Claudius Drusus since he was active on military campaign while the altar was being carved and at the time of the inauguration on 30 January 9 BCE (see 3, above). If the identification is correct, this is the only portrait of Drusus which can be securely dated to his lifetime. He is shown as a confident and relaxed individual in the company of his family. With her head turned to look at him is the figure of Antonia Minor, who holds the hand of a small boy identified as Ti. Claudius Nero (better known as Germanicus) who would have been nearly six years old at the time of the consecration ceremony.
Portraits
Several carvings and busts have been identified as Drusus the Elder, though the identifications of some can be – and have been – disputed.
The Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, in the United States has a cameo (accession number 99.109) believed to show Livia Drusilla holding a bust of one of her sons as a child, so it is possibly that of Drusus as a boy. Measuring 3.1 centimetres (1.2 inches) x 3.8 centimetres (1.5 inches) and carved from turquoise sometime during the early imperial period, this piece of jewellery shows Livia in the guise of Venus Genetrix. The young man looks up at her, his head wreathed in laurel.
The Museum of Fine Arts, Boston also has a bust (accession number 88.346; plate 4) of a late teenager with his head covered with a toga like a veil, indicating that the figure was represented as a citizen in an act of prayer, or a priest or magistrate in the act of making a sacrifice. Carved around 18 BCE in marble from Mount Pentelikon near Athens the bust was purportedly found in Civita Lavinia. Measuring 41 centimetres (16.1 inches) x 17 centimetres (6.7 inches) the bust was intended to be inserted in a draped statue and was made separately. The head is turned and inclined very slightly to the right. It has been variously identified as Drusus (the date would be consistent with his quaestorship) or his brother.
A very fine cast bronze bust from Pompeii is now kept at the Museo Archeologico Nazionale di Napoli, in Naples, Italy. Measuring 42 centimetres (16.5 inches), the head is turned and inclined very slightly to the right. The bust is remarkable for the hazel-coloured inlay still present in the irises of the eyes. Though the man appears older, his features – shape of the face, prominent ears, styling of the hair – are strikingly close to those of the marble bust in the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.
A particularly fine marble head is displayed in the Gallo-Roman Collection of the Musées royaux d’Art et d’Histoire, Brussels, Belgium (accession number A.1148; plate 5). It was acquired from the Collection L. Somzée in 1904. The bust shows a man in his early to mid-twenties and its profile is consistent with that of Drusus on the coins issued by Claudius. There is something of the quality of Alexander the Great in this portrait with its slight tilt of the head and somewhat dreamy gaze, full lips, and tousled hair, which is worn long at the neck in the style the Claudius brothers favoured.
A somewhat more crudely sculpted head is displayed in the Department of Greek, Etruscan and Roman Antiquities of the Louvre, Paris (accession number Ma 3515; plate 31). It was carved from Parian marble quarried near Athens around 9 BCE–2 CE and measures 27 centimetres (10.6 inches). The shape of the head, the prominent ears and the haircut echo those of the bronze bust in Naples, but the quality of execution of the features lacks the finesse of either busts in Belgium or Italy.
A statue identified as Drusus the Elder is in the collection of the Vatican Museum in The Vatican City. The larger than lifesize statue was found in Caere (Cerveteri), 50–60 kilometres (31.0–37.3 miles) northwest of Rome, and originally stood in the theatre or the nearby Augusteum, where it was part of a statuary group comprising of Tiberius, seated Claudius, Britannicus and Messalina. Drusus is shown as the military commander with muscled cuirass decorated with phoenixes, and a paludamentum draped over the left shoulder. He stands with right arm outstretched, with the head turned slightly to the right as if gazing out to a distant horizon.
The Ashmolean Museum, Oxford includes an unidentified bust from the Arundel Collection simply described as a “Roman Prince” (Michaelis 69). The bust has been identified variously as Agrippa Postumus, Britannicus, Claudius and Tiberius, but in the author’s view the portrait is closer to the profile of the bust in the Musées royaux d’Art et d’Histoire, Brussels. The hair is cut in the same feathered style over the face, with long sideburns and worn long at the back.
Standing in the Great Court of the British Museum, London is a marble statue of a “Roman prince on horseback” (accession number GR 1864 10–21 BM Sc. 1886). On stylistic grounds it has been dated to the Julio-Claudian period, but it was restored in the sixteenth century by the Italian Renaissance architect and sculptor Giacomo della Porta and became part of the Farnese Collection. The young man is naked but for a cloak pinned with a brooch over the right shoulder. He holds the reins in his right hand and a rod or scroll or riding crop in his left. The hairstyle is unmistakably that favoured by the Claudians of the turn of the first century CE. The statue may possibly be one of those commissioned by the Senate in 9 BCE to honour Drusus and to console his mother Livia.
Notes
Abbreviations
AE L’Année Epigraphique
AW Ancient Warfare
BMCRE H.B. Mattingly et al., Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum, London
1923–
BMCRR H.A. Grueber, Coins of the Roman Republic in the British Museum, London, 1910
CAH A.K. Bowman et al., The Cambridge Ancient History, Volume X: The Augustan
Empire, 43 BC – AD 69, Cambridge, 1996
CIL T. Mommsen et al., Corpus Inscriptionem Latinarum, Berlin, 1863–
CRA P. Erdkamp, A Companion to the Roman Army, Oxford, 2007
JbSGU Jahrbuch (Jahresbericht) der Schweizerischen Gesellschaft für Urgeschichte
JRES Journal of Roman Equipment Studies
JRS Journal of Roman Studies
MDAI(I) Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts (Abteiling Instanbul)
RIC H.B. Mattingly, E.A. Sydenham, Roman Imperial Coinage, London, 1923–
RIL Rendiconti del Instituto Lombardo
di scienza e lettere, Classe di Lettere
S H.A. Seaby et al., Roman Silver Coins, London, 1978–
Chapter 1: Drusus the Youth
1 See Anthony A. Barrett, Livia: First Lady of Imperial Rome, New Haven, 2002, Appendix 7, pp. 313–314 – this is the best guess possible based on the available evidence.
2 Dio 48.34–3.
3 Velleius Paterculus 2.75.3; Tacitus, Annales 5.1.2.
4 Suetonius, Divus Augustus 69.1; Tacitus, Annales 5.1.2.
5 See Barrett 2002, p. 22; Tacitus, Annales 5.1; Suetonius, Divus Augustus 69.1; Dio para">48.34.3.
6 Suetonius, Tiberius 4.3.
7 Velleius Paterculus 2.79.2; Dio 48.44.3.
8 Dio 48.44.3.
9 For a discussion on forms of marriage in Roman times, see Jerome Carcopino, Daily Life in Ancient Rome, New Haven, 1940, pp. 80–84; Ugo E. Paoli, Rome: Its People, Life and Customs, London, 1963, pp. 113–119.
10 Suetonius, Claudius 1.1.
11 Ovid, Fasti, 1.587. R. Seager, Tiberius, Berkeley, 1972, p. 10 favours 14 January whereas Levick 2002, Appendix 7, pp. 313–314, opts for a date before 17 March 38 BCE. Drusus the Elder’s birthday may be recorded on a fragment of a calendar dating to the Julio-Claudian era from Colonia Iulia Hispellum (Spello), Umbria in Italy, see S. Piruli “Osservazioni sul feriale di Spello”, Tituli 2 (1980), pp. 47–80; arguing against this view is P. Herz, “Das Kenotaph von Limyra, kultische und juristische Voraussetzungen”, MDAI(I) 35 (1984), pp. 178–192 at p. 189ff.
Eager for Glory Page 29