Ara Ubiorum
Arausio
Argentorate
Arelate
Asciburgium
Athenae
Atuatuca Tungrorum
Augusta Praetoria
Augusta Raurica
Augusta Taurinorum
Augusta Treverorum
Augusta Vindelicorum
Augustobona
Augustodunum Aedorum
Augustomagus
Augustonemetum
Augustoritum
Autricum
Avaricum
Bagacum
Batavodurum
Bonna
Brundisium
Alise-Sainte-Reine
Altino
Aix-en-Provence
Aquileia
Uncertain: Haltern am See? Oberaden?
Little St Bernard Pass
Langres
Andernach
Cologne, Köln (after 1 CE)
Orange
Strasbourg
Arles
Moers-Asberg
Athens, Athenai
Tongeren, Tongres
Aosta
Augst
Turin, Torino
Trier
Augsburg
Troyes
Autun
Senlis
Clermont-Ferrand
Limoges
Chartres
Bourges
Bavai
Nijmegen
Bonn
Brindisi
Burdigala
Caesarea Maritima
Caesaromagus
Cemelenum
Cenabum
Colonia Copia Munatia Felix
Condate
Confluentes
Duria Bautica
Durocortorum
Fectio
Feltria
Forum Iulii
Geminiacum
Genava
Gesoriacum
Hostilia
Limonum
Lugdunum
Maia
Massalia/Massilia
Mediolanum
Mediolanum Santonum
Mogontiacum
Mutina
Narbo Martius
Nemausus
Novaesium
Noviomagus
Oppidum Ubiorum
Pisae
Pons Drusi
Roma
Rotomagus
Segusio
Summus Poeninus
Ticinum
Tridentum
Tropaeum Drusi
Vetera
Vercellae
Verona
Vindonissa
Vorgium
Bordeaux
Caesarea
Beauvais
Cimiez
Orléans
Lyon (Fourvière)
Lyon (La Croix-Rousse)
Koblenz
Dora Baltea
Reims
Vechten
Feltre
Fréjus
Liberchies
Geneva, Genève
Boulogne
Ostiglia
Poitiers
Lyon (after mid-first century CE)
Merano
Marseilles
Milan, Milano
Saintes
Mainz
Modena
Narbonne
Nîmes
Neuss
Speyer
Cologne, Köln (prior to 1 CE)
Pisa
Bolzano
Rome, Roma
Rouen
Susa
Great St Bernard Pass
Pavia
Trent, Trento
Uncertain: Dresden? Magdeburg? Poppenburg?
Xanten
Verceil
Verona
Windisch
Carhaix
Rivers
Adrana
Aenus
Alara
Albis
Amisia, Amisius
Arar
Athesis
Danuvius
Eliso
Garumna
Isara
Ister
Laugona
Licus, Licates
Liger
Longino
Lupia
Moenus
Mosa
Mosella
Navalla
Nicer
Padus
Rhenus
Rhodanus
Sala
Sequana
Vahalis
Viadrus
Visurgis
Eder
Inn
Aller
Elbe
Ems
Saône
Adige, Etsch
Danube, Donau
Uncertain: Alme?
Garonne
Isar
Danube, Donau
Lahn
Lech
Loire
Leine
Lippe
Main
Meuse
Moselle, Mosel
IJssel
Neckar
Po
Rhine, Rhein
Rhône
Saal
Seine
Waal
Oder
Weser
Ancient Sources
The evidence from which it is possible to piece together the life and exploits of Nero Claudius Drusus Germanicus is scattered across several types of source material. These include written accounts and inscriptions. From coins and sculptures we have a good idea of how he looked.
1. Authors
Written sources from the ancient world pose particular problems for modern historians. The approach to writing history then was very different to today. In Ancient History: Evidence and Models (1985) Sir Moses Finley observed that modern scholars tend to treat ancient authors’ works with a reverence and lack of criticism that they do not accord material of other ages. It is particularly problematic for anyone studying the principate of Augustus. Primary – that is to say contemporary or eyewitness – accounts are few. They include the emperor’s own propagandist Res Gestae, Velleius Paterculus’ simplistic history, Strabo’s sprawling geographical treatise, and the poems of Horace, Propertius and Vergil. The narrative history for the period penned by the great historian of the time, Livy, is entirely lost save for what are in effect library catalogue entries of each volume recorded in the so-called Periochae. All the other accounts of the long reign of Augustus were written decades or centuries later. The most complete continuous narrative is the derivative history of Cassius Dio which he wrote two-and-a-half centuries after the events and for his source material he drew on earlier accounts. In studying these accounts for evidence of the life and exploits of Drusus we have to be mindful of the difficulties posed by the literature and understand the motives of the authors, the times in which they wrote and compare their claims against what is known from the archaeological record. Futhermore, few of the ancient writers had military experience so their accounts of expeditions, campaigns and battles lack the observations and insights of a soldier learned from actual combat.
Augustus (C. or G. Iulius Caesar Augustus), 63 BCE–14 CE
According to Suetonius (Claudius 1) shortly after Drusus the Elder’s death Augustus wrote a biography of his youngest stepson. Not a single word of it survives, which is a great pity as it was likely as much a memoir as a straight historical account – Augustus’ fondness for his youngest stepson is attested both by Suetonius and Cassius Dio. Augustus alluded to Drusus’ military exploits in the official account of his personal accomplishments, known as the Res Gestae Divi Augusti, written shortly before his death and which survives more-or-less complete from inscriptions found in Ancyra, Antioch and Apollonia. Though not crediting the achievement to Drusus directly by name, Augustus nevertheless celebrated his expedition from the Rhine to the land of the Cimbri (Res Gestae 26.109) and the subsequent surrender of the Sugambri (Res Gestae 32.137).
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Cassiodorus (Flavius Magnus Aurelius Cassiodorus Senator), c. 485–c. 585 CE
The Syrian-born statesman who served Theodoric the Great, later turned monk, wrote a combined history of the Ostrogothic and Roman peoples ending in the year 519 CE. In the Chronica, or Chronicon, dedicated to Eutharic, son-in-law of Theodoric, Cassiodorus drew upon a library of older works including Livy, Aufidius Bassus, Eutropius and Jerome. As a chronicler, he lists events as they occurred, including the dedication of a temple to Caesar (Augustus?) among the Lingones in Gallia Belgica in 9 BCE, the year of Drusus’ consulship (Chronicon 385D).
Cassius Dio (L. or Cl. Dio Cassius Cocceianus), c. 155 or 163/164-after 229 CE
Dio was a senator and consul who wrote one of the most complete histories of Roman civilisation that has come down to us. Written in Greek in eighty volumes, it took Cassius Dio twenty-two years to research and assemble his material. Book 54 of the ‘Pωμαϊκὴἱστορία(Roman History) provides the most complete account of the Norican, Raetian and German Wars undertaken by Drusus 15–10 BCE. Book 55 describes the course of fateful events in 9 BCE including the appearance of a Latin-speaking Germanic ghoul to Drusus, which caused him to suspend the campaign after erecting a tropeion on the Elbe River. He also describes Drusus’ death, Tiberius’ epic trip to be at his side when he died and his long walk leading the cortège to Rome, and the state funeral. He mentions the kenotaphion (erected in Mogontiacum) by soldiers of the legions upon their commander’s death. His sources may have included Livy.
Eutropius, fourth century CE
Eutropius was a government official based in Constantinople who served the Emperor Julian ‘The Apostate’ (361–363 CE) on his campaign against the Sassanids. He was alive during the reign of Emperor Valens (364–378 CE) to whom he dedicated his Breviarium Historiae Romanae. This is a compendium in ten books of Roman history from the foundation of the city to the accession of Valens. He draws upon several respected sources, including Livy, and in this regard his book provides a useful confirmation of events, such as Augustus’ appointment of Drusus to prosecute the German War; as well as details that have not survived in other extant accounts, such as the relocation of 40,000 prisoners (captivi) from Germania to Gaul (Breviarium 7.9).
Florus (Iulius Florus or L. Anneus Florus or P. Annius Florus), second century CE
The precise identity of Florus continues to be debated (he may have been the poet, rhetorician and friend of the Emperor Hadrian), but the Epitome de T. Livio Bellorum Omnium Annorum DCC Libri Duo in two volumes summarises all the main wars fought by Roman armies up to the time of his writing. He mentions Drusus’ rôle in the Norican War against the Raeti, Vindelici and kingdom of Noricum (Epitome 2.22) and against the Germanic nations (Epitome 2.30) – and delights in disclosing some of the more lurid details of atrocities.
Horace (Q. Horatius Flaccus), 65–8 BCE
A favourite of Augustus, Horace is regarded as one of imperial Rome’s greatest Latin poets. He composed the Carmina or Odes (23–13 BCE), the fourth book of which is believed to have been commissioned personally by Augustus to honour his stepsons. In Ode 4 he celebrates the bravery and derring-do of Drusus and Tiberius against the Raeti and Vindelici (Carmina 4.4). From Horace we know that Drusus’ siege of the oppidum of the Genauni took place on 1 August 15 BCE (Carmina 4.14).
Hyginus (Hyginus Gromaticus?), second century CE
Hyginus was a Roman land surveyor who set out what an engineer of the first century should know to be competent at defining legal boundaries. From his De Condicionibus Agrorum we learn of the unit of measurement called the pes Drusianus, or ‘Drusus foot’, which was slightly longer than the standard pes Monetalis or ‘Roman foot’, being used in Germania by the Tungri (Agrorum 11).
Josephus (Yosef Ben Matityahu or T. Flavius Josephus), 37–100 CE
The erstwhile leader of the resistance at Yodfat (Jotapata) during the First Jewish War of 66–73 CE, Josephus was a prolific writer under his Flavian benefactors to whom he owed his life. In his Wars of the Jews (Jewish War or The History of the Destruction of Jerusalem) published around 75 CE he describes the harbour at Caesarea Maritima and mentions the fact that the tallest tower was called the ‘Drusion’ or ‘Drusium’ after Augustus’ youngest stepson at King Herodes’ own request (Jewish War 1.411–413).
Livy (T. Livius), 59 BCE–17 CE
Livy knew several members of the Julio-Claudian family personally, possibly including Drusus, and he even encouraged the young (and future Emperor) Claudius to write history. Arguably Rome’s greatest historian, Livy wrote the epic Ab Urbe Condita Libri in 142 books covering the period 753 BCE to Livy’s own time. Thirty-five of the books survive and the contents of the lost books we know from the Periochae, which is a catalogue of summaries by individual volumes. From the Periochae we know that Books 138–142 of Livy’s magnum opus covered the important period of Drusus’ public and military life, 15 BCE through 9 BCE. In particular, Book 142 gives a description of how Drusus was fatally wounded and of the funeral. The tantalizingly cryptic descriptions of each book attest to the scope and rich detail of Livy’s work that provided the source material for many later writers such as Cassiodorus, Florus, Valerius Maximus and Velleius Paterculus.
Obsequens (Iulius Obsequens), mid-fourth century CE
Little is known about Obsequens whose name means “compliant”. He published a book entitled Ab Anno Urbis Conditae Du Prodigiorum Liber (Book of Prodigies since the Foundation of the City). It is a compilation of omens and portents that occurred in Rome between 249–12 BCE and appears to have drawn heavily on the works of Livy. The last section of the surviving document mentions the swarm of bees that presaged a defeat for Drusus’ army in 12 BCE.
Ovid (P. Ovidius Naso), 43 BCE–17 CE
Ovid is commonly ascribed the authorship of the elegy variously called Consolatio ad Liviam or Ad Liviam de Morte Drusi or Epicedion Drusi (Poem of Consolation for Livia Augusta on the Death of Her Son Nero Drusus). The author claims to have been at the funeral and describes the reaction of the crowds, though scholars believe it was written well after the event and put its date of creation after 6 CE. A possible, though unlikely, author of the poem is C. Albinovanus Pedo, who was a contemporary of Augustus. However, its poor pseudo-Ovidian style and metre; the fact that it is not anywhere mentioned by Ovid; and that it is known only from a manuscript of the second half of the fifteenth century, leads some scholars to postulate that its creator lived in Renaissance not Roman Italy.
Pliny the Elder (G. Plinius Secundus), 23–79 CE
The polymath Pliny the Elder was an active soldier in the Rhine army, seeing three tours of duty (45–51 CE), including one as a praefectus equitum and he wrote a single-volume book on throwing the javelin while riding on horseback. His nephew and heir G. Plinius Caecilius Secundus (Pliny the Younger) records in a letter to Baebius Macer (Letters 3.5) the story he was told that while his uncle slept in his cot in Germania he was visited by the ghost of Drusus who implored him to write a history of his life and exploits “lest they fade into oblivion”. He began writing the book, which was regarded as an authoritative history of all the German Wars fought by the Romans, while on active duty. Pliny likely borrowed material or referenced Aufidius Bassus’ Bellum Germanicum – but that book has not come down to us. Sadly Pliny’s Bella Germaniae in twenty volumes has also not survived, although we know that it in turn provided source material for other Roman historians, notably Tacitus (Annals 1.69).
Pliny is best known for his encyclopaedic Naturalis Historia (Natural History). From it we know he had first hand knowledge of the people and territories of the Chauci and Chatti, including Lacus Flevo (Naturalis Historia 16.1–2). It is in this work that Pliny records the great achievement of a Roman fleet sailing as far as the promontorium Cimbrorum (Naturalis Historia 2.167), the swarming of the bees before Drusus’ near catastrophic Battle at Arbalo (Naturalis Historia 11.18) and Tiberius’ 200-mile ride in a vehicle in a single day and night to be with
his dying brother (Naturalis Historia 7.20.84).
Seneca the Younger (L. Annaeus Seneca), c. 4 BCE–65 CE
Seneca, the stoic philosopher, statesman and dramatist, who was also tutor to Emperor Nero, wrote a series of moral essays. In De Consolatione ad Marciam (To Marcia on Consolation), written around 40 CE, he remarks that Drusus would have made a great princeps having already proved himself a great leader (dux) by taking Roman signa further into Germania than any Roman before (To Marcia on Consolation 3.1). He also mentions that the Germanic tribes agreed to a ‘cease fire’ on account of their respect for Drusus to allow Tiberius to take his dead brother home (Ad Marciam 3.1). Seneca discusses the funeral cortège from Germania and the outpouring of public grief as it made its way to Rome (Ad Marciam 3.2); and the grief his mother Livia displayed which she put aside once her son’s ashes were laid in the Mausoleum out of respect for her living husband and eldest son (Ad Marciam 3.2).
Strabo (Strabonos), 63/64 BCE–c. 24 CE
The historian, geographer and philosopher Strabo is best known for his Γεωγραφικά(Geography), a seventeen volume descriptive survey of the world known to the Romans. Begun some time around 20 BCE, Strabo gives an insight into the intelligence base Drusus and his legates had to work with at the time they planned their campaigns. He provides us with useful descriptions of the land and rivers of the Alps, of the Tres Galliae and of Germania, as well as a comprehensive list of peoples living there (Geography 7.1.2–3). He specifically blames the Sugambri under their warlord Melo for instigating hostilities with the Romans in 17 BCE(Geography 7.1.4). He also reveals the general paucity of knowledge the Romans had of the regions beyond Germania. His account confirms Drusus’ presence in the Alps (Geography 4.6.9), his exploration of the Frisian coastline and his untimely death at an unspecified location he places between the Salas and Rhenus rivers (Geography 7.1.3).
Suetonius (G. Suetonius Tranquillis), c. 69/75–after 130 CE
Suetonius mentions Drusus in three of his books in the biographical Lives of the Caesars (De Vita Caesarum). In Divus Augustus he quotes from the letter in which Drusus is depicted playing and losing at dice (Divus Augustus 71). In Tiberius he describes the Claudian clan and tells the story of Ti. Claudius Nero, Drusus’ father (Tiberius 1–4). He also reveals the tension between Tiberius and Drusus in the episode of the disclosure of the ‘republican letter’ (Tiberius 50). His fullest account of Drusus’ life, however, is found in the life of Claudius, in which he lists in resumé fashion the commander’s achievements. It is here that Suetonius describes Drusus’ birth and later change of name, as well as revealing his political leanings and personal motivations, including his eagerness for glory and the lust for spolia opima (Claudius 1). He writes briefly about the fossae Drusinae – ‘Drusus’ canals’ – suggesting there was possibly more than one structure. He also mentions the tumulus erected by soldiers of the legions upon their commander’s death and the continuing annual race and festival held in his honour there and in cities across Tres Galliae; and the triumphal arch and posthumous grant by the senate of the agnomen Germanicus (Claudius 1).
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